Integrated water resources management for sustainable development of in western rural China

Ecological Economy (2010)6:283-294Empirical StudyIntegrated water resources management for sustainable develop-ment of in western rural ChinaCHEN Gui-bao 1,2*, HUANG Gao-bao1. School of Environment and Resources, Gansu Agricuturial University, Landzhou 730070, P. R. China2. Research Center for Education Policy; China National Institute for Education Research, Bejing 100088, P R. ChinaAbstract: Management in water resources development of Jinghe watershed of western rural China is examined withParticipatory Rural Appraisal method -- a rare applied method in China and questionnaire survey of stakeholders.Combination of these two survey methods derives good results as it could avoid personal bias in identifying and rank-ing the issues on a concrete basis in following up households' survey. Statistic Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) wasused for data analysis. Results indicate that since the early 1980s, issues of water scarcity, river pollution, soil erosion,ning and management system have created dificultiese for sustainable development of the watershed. The stakeholdersand local governments are fully aware of the challenges and are committed to achieving a solution through integratedwater resource management (IWRD). The concept and the application of IWRD for rural China are reviewed candanalyzed, and a framework for implementation of IWRD in China is developed. It is concluded that the keys to suC-cessful implementation of the approach will depend on optimal arrangement of institutions, policy reforms, communityinvolvement and capacity building in water sector; which need to fully integrate various management functions withinthe watershed.Keywords: Water resources; PRA; Questionnaire survey; Management; Rural China1 Introductionview of all the activities that depend on the waterresourceWater resources management in the 21“cen-In China, watershed management has beentury requires a radical reorientation and an effec- carried on traditionally by a top-down approachtive dialogue between decision-makers, stakehold-in which policies and development objectives areers and the scientific water community”, mainly set by the state and provincial governments. Eco-due to the close relation between greater rainfallnomic growth in terms of agriculture and industryvariability and lower per capita GDP 2. Water re- is the primary concern in watershed managementsources management in a watershed is critical as it without reference to sustainability of the wateris an inherently complex system comprising many system, particularly in west China where economicinterdependent components across administrative development relatively lags behind national aver-and hydrological boundaries. Therefore, an inte- age, and the main target of development programsgrated approach has to be taken to water, land useis to pursuit a high GDP growth rate. Such a man-and ecosystems to secure an optimal use of both agement approach has resulted in not only over-water and other water-dependent resources. In thisexploitation of existing water resources, but alsoregard, Integrated Water Resources Management continuing and rapid water quality deterioration(IWRM) is essential for securing a proper over-and degradation of the environment, as what is ex-periencing in other countries国. Equally importantare the plans and recommendations put forward toReceived Mar. 2, 2010; Accepted May 6, 2010help achieve sustainable water development at the* Corresponding author.watershed have bv and large tended to be reactiveE-mail address: chenguilbao2001@yahoo.comauAuthor: CHEN Gui-bao (1963- ), male, PhD candidate, asociate and to C中国煤化工solution suchprofessor, specialized in agro ecology.as waterYHCNMHGrfromSouth◎2010 Ecological Economy (tt://xb.suse. edu.cn/)283Chen G. B., Huang G. B. / Ecological Economy (2010)6:283-294to North project in China), flow regulation andthe purpose of the activity. The participants wereallocation, improved water use efficiencies (e.g. given time to discuss major issues in water use andintroduction of water saving techniques in westmanagement of the watershed. When the group .China), and physical impacts of water use, and so has finished the discussion and already identi-on 4. However, while these types of action arefied and ranked the major issues, the facilitatorclearly helpful and relevant, they provide only part and observer started writing down the results andof the solution. Integrated management decisionsconfirmed the results through reading them to themust take into accounts not only environmental participants. The method avoids bias of other datafactors, but also economic, social, political andcollection methods such as individual question-cultural considerations, which are major concerns naire survey. Both primary and second ev idencein IWRM approach.were used to support stakeholders' view.This paper presents the first case of applyingAfter PRA, questionnaire surveys were con-IWRM approach for a watershed in west China, ducted ranking importance of each of the issueswith emphasis on less tackled issues such as social identified from PRA. Altogether 102 farmerand institutional aspects in the IWRM practices households were interviewed using structuredin the watershed, with Participatory Rural Ap- questionnaire. Ranking of farmers' perceptions ofpraisal (PRA) method. In this paper, the study area water issues was done by weighting the individualof Jinghe watershed in west China is described, responses within different classes of occurrence as .followed by an examination of management con- reflected by their ranks. A composite picture of thecerns and issues in water management throughperception was obtained by computing an index asexploration of stakeholders' views, and the roles of shown below.existing organizations involved in water resourcesmanagement in the watershed. The paper endsIndex =FW +F2W2 +FgW3 +FqW4 + F,W3with a discussion of integrated water managementfor sustainable development of the watershed.where F, F, F3, F4 and Fs represent frequencyof response ranked“very high",“high",“medium",2 Research methodology“low", and“very low" respectively. W, W2, W3, W4and Ws represent corresponding weights appliedData used in this paper are extracted from na- to different ranked classes as mentioned before,tional, provincial and county statistic yearbooks specifically W.=1.0, W,=0.8, W;=0.6, W.=0.4, andand from the Yellow River Conservancy Commis- W3 =0.2; and N= ample size= 102 households.sion (YRCC). Stakeholders' concerns about waterissues and their participation in water management 3 Jinghe watershedpractices are gathered from Participatory RuralAppraisal (PRA) held in two villages of upperJinghe River is one of the ten major tributariesstream (i.e. villages of Nanzhuang and Shime) in of the Yellow River, and a main stream in the loess2006. Two groups of PRA were conducted at two plateau. Its watershed has a total area of 45,42 lselected villages respectively, and altogether four km2. It is a mountainous watershed in northwest-groups of PRA were held and 60 stakeholders ern China covering 31 counties of Ningxia Huiparticipated in the meetings, of which 47 are localAutonomous Region, Gansu Province and Shaanxifarmers including 22 women and 25 men, 9 areProvince (Fig. 1). The watershed starts from south-township and village officials, and 4 are officials east Maweibaliang valley located in Jingyuanfrom the Bureau of Economy and Developmentcommune of Jingyuan County of Ningxia Huiand Bureau of Water Management of the represen- Autonomous Region, with average elevation oftative counties.2,540 meters中国煤化工comprisesDuring PRA process, the facilitator described of 11 rivers vYHCNMHGove1,000284Chen G. B., Huang G. B. / Ecological Economy (2010)6:283-294km2 (Table 1), and 26 rivers with a total catch- respectively.ment area above 500 km', and hundreds of smallThe watershed is characterized by an averagestreams. Jinghe River flows into Weihe River, aannual rainfall of 500 mm-700 mm and annualsecond largest river of the Yellow River, in Gaol- average evaporation of 806 mm-1,906 mm, whiching county of Shaanxi Province. The watershed is is higher than average rainfall, and average tem-an important irrigation water source of Guanzhong perature is 7.1°C-13.7°C. The precipitation is un-Plain - a food bowl of the country down streams,evenly distributed. High rainfall usually occurs inand a transitional area from arid to semi-arid and summer (July to September), accounting for abouthumid areas of the country. It now serves as a land59%-72% of the total annual precipitation.link and a detour between marginal regions ofThe watershed has 409 townships and a totalnorthwestern part of the country and those of the population of 6.2 million with 89% of rural resi-middle part of the country.dents. The average population density is 136 per-Topographically, the watershed is composed sons/km2. The watershed allocates more than 80%of five topographic types, including loess upland of its arable land to cereal production, of whichand ravines, loess plateau ravines, soil and stone 57% is on slope land. Most farms in the area areupland, alluvial plains and loess scalariform areas,small and subsistence is based on practices of dry-among which loess upland and ravines and loess land farming activities. About ten different cropsplateau ravines are two main types and occupyare grown in the area, including winter wheat, sum-41.4% and 39.8% of total area of the watershed mer maize, potato, millet, beans, herbs, etc. ForestInner MongoliaAutonomous RegionADingbiaLegendJinghe WatershedBoundaryNingxia HuiRiver SystemRegionCountyProvinceShannxi ProvinceGansu Province.530≌lRlometers中国煤化工Fig.1. Location and major rivers of JinMYHCNMHG285Chen G. B., Huang G. B. / Ecological Economy (2010)6:283-294and fruit tree plantation have been expanding in thewater; maintenance and improvement of ecologi-recent years because of higher economic returns cal conditions of the Jinghe watershed will benefitand governmental policy of conversion of arable regions along the Yellow River watershed. As oneland into forest and grassland for soil and water of the major economic activities, livestock herdingconservation and environmental protection 51uses 7.40% of the water, domestic sector 1 .08%and industrial sector 0.91%.4 Water management concerns from stakehold-Although agriculture consumes most of waterers' viewresources, however, the deficit is still very high,or 16.05x108 m' additional water is required forIn Jinghe watershed, issues related to water maintaining production, accounting for 75.81% ofmanagement, as identified from PRA, includethe total water deficit of the watershed (Table 4).water scarcity, river water pollution, soil erosion,Water deficit for maintaining watercourse of thelack of stakeholders' participation, insufficientrivers is 2.06>10* m' (or 9.73% of the total watercoordination among water management organiza-Table 1tions, weak awareness of resource conservation,Major rivers in Jinghe watershedlack of technical know-how, and decreasing veg-etation coverage. Result from households' surveyRiver namesTownship ofLength Catchmentorigin(km)area (km)shows that the first five issues are main obstaclesRuiheGuanshanliang 1161,671 .and contributors to overall water management andHonghekingji1871,336development of the watershed (Table 2). Both sec-PuhMaojing2047,478ondary and primary data are used herewith to sup-RuheDawar713,375port farmers' views.MalianheShanchengchuan Niutoushan771,9434.1 Water scarcityDongchuanBaimayaojian 1323,065GuchengchuanSanlidian2,478HeiheShangguan1684,255The total water yields in the watershed is 20.19DaxiheLjiahe1272,537x10* m', of which 18x10* m' or 89% is from sur-SanshuiheHongsi291,321face sources like rivers and streams as the majorpart of the watershed are located in mountain area;Data source: Field Survey Report, 2003.the rest 11% is groundwater sources. Analysis ofwater use by sectors in Jinghe watershed shows Ises related to water resoures use and management in(Table 3) that agriculture remains as the main Jjinghe watershedconsumer of water resources. 90.61% of the totalPercentage to total Indexwater is consumed by agriculture, and crop pro-Issueshousehold (%)value .duction consumes 33.57%, orchard 5. 84% andWater scarcity77.2artificial irrigation 3.27%. Water demand fromWater pollution61.00.72grass and forest is ranked as the second largestSoil ersion58.40.63water consumer (which is sometimes called eCo-Lack of participation51.10.60logical water demand), with a total consumptionWeak istitutional48.00.54of 47.93% of water resources. Ecological watercoordinationWeak awareness of resource45.30.36demand is the minimum water requirement for res-conservationtoration and maintenance of ecological functions,Lack of technical know-how 36.70.30or for improvement of environmental quality 16, 7.Data source: Field Survey, 2006.The fact for considering ecological water demandNote: The higher sthe index ic the etrnoer the nerreption isreptuon1sis .is that it has been generally recognized by the gov- .00-0.80,0 Seve中国煤化工40, Impor-ernment that environment is a legitimate user of tant; < 0.40, Les:fYHCNMH G286Chen G. B., Huang G. B. / Ecological Economy (2010)6:283-294deficit), followed by orchard 7.37% and grass and ing trend since 2000. This structural change of wa-forest 7.09%, implying a critical situation of water ter use is coupled with urbanization trend of the re-balance in the watershed. This situation is also re- gion, with urban population increased by 66.38%,ported in the Yellow River and Huaihe River basin and shrinkage of arable land area by 6.03% from1990-2005.Comparing changing rate of water use by sec-Several causes have led to increasing watertors, it is found that the highest increase in water scarcity. Decreasing of precipitation, river shrink-use goes to industrial sector, which has increased age and desiccation is a major cause leading to wa-by 15.79 times in the past 15 years, followed by ter resources scarcity. Run-off has reduced by 20%livestock production and value added trees' (or since 1980s in the watershed, and the main riverscalled cash tree for producing fruits and other like Honghe River, Ruhe River, Huluhe River inproducts and by-products in Chinese term) water upstream have become seasonal rivers, water flowuse (Fig.2). However, as a major water consumer, in Qingshuihe River is only half of that in 1980swater use by crop production has shown a decreas-Water is scarce, but water use efficiency is be-2005200019951990目0%20%40%60%80%100%日Domestic■Crop irrigation田Industry日Crop pr oduct ion (excluding irrigation)幽Nonwood forest网LivestockFig.2. Dynamics of water use structure in Jinghe watershed (percentage of total water use)Table 3Water use among different sectors in Jinghe watershedCrops .IrrigationOrchardLivestockGrass and forest DomesticIndustryQuantity(10* m)59.91.8410.4313.2085.531.931.61Percentage (%)33.573.275.847.4047.93 ..1.080.91Table4Water deficit in Jinghe watershedCropsGrass & forest_ WatercourseQuantity( 108 m)16.051.50中国煤化工21.1775.817.377.09TYHCN M H G00.000287ChenG. B., Huang G. B. / Ecological Economy (2010)6:283-294low national average. In 2000, water consumedof registered TVEs annually. Domestic wastewaterfor producing 1,333 US dollars of GDP was 900 discharges untreatedly and industrial activities arem', while national average was 610 m39. Agricul-the single largest contributor to pollutant loads toture is a major contributor to GDP, accounting for watercourses in the watershed. In the upper stream,50. 1% of the total GDP, also a main water user.concentration of industries, like potato starch pro-Percentage of irrigated land to total arable land cessing plant, leather processing plant, pipe andincreased from about 0.4% in 1950 to 13.6% inpaper mills, are major sources of pollutants; annual2000. Increasing irrigation water consumption as- wastewater discharged from industrial source is 4.6sociated with improper irrigation method causesmillion tons, and 4.3 million tons from domesticwasteful use of limited water resources. Field sources; wastewater is discharged directly to riv-observation shows that during irrigation season,ers of Qingshuihe River, Huluhe River, and Yuhefarmers convey water from the most nearby riv- River, causing concentration of COD, BOD, am-ers or streams to fields via canals dug by farm-monia and dissolved nitrogen in those rivers; waterers themselves due to unavailability of rrigation quality falls into Class V which is unsuitable forfacilities. All the farmers adopted basin irrigation domestic use 9. Currently, only one wastewatermethod. Since no fee is charged and no permission treatment plant with daily capacity of 20,000 tons .card is required for water use, farmers extract as is available in serious polluted upstream of themuch water as possible in order to meet their ir-watershed; there has no experience in wastewaterrigation requirements. Even so, available water re- management in the watershed. And dependence onsources could not meet irrigation demand, causingpolluted surface and groundwater for irrigation,low productivity on the land; average wheat yield supplementing it by using untreated wastewateris only 14 kg/ha in irrigated land, lower than aver-of local farmers is of concern to human health andage of 30 kg/ha in the North China Plain. Apart soil qualityIol.from agricultural use, increasingly intensive andwasteful use of water by urban and industry are 4.3 Soil erosioncausing low water use efficiency and social con-sequence like conflicts between upper, middle andSoil erosion has been increasingly becoming adown streams in availability of water resources.serious problem in the watershed. About 91% ofthe entire watershed is affected by soil erosion. As4.2 Water polutionshown in Table 5, about 5,000 to 8,000 tons of soilper square kilometers is washed away each yearWidespread pollution has occurred as a result from 43% of the total land area of the watershed.of rapid industrialization, particularly with respect Most of it is going into the Yellow River, which isto uncontrolled growth of township and village en- therefore threatening to become clogged from siltterprises (TVEs). Since the 1990s, there has been, more quickly than originally anticipated. Accord-on average, 20% increase in the number of units ing to statistics 4, sand transferred annually fromTable 5Soil erosion in Jinghe watershed_Quantity of erosion (Tons soil/ (km' year)) ClassificationLand area (km2)Percentage to total land area (%)Severe1,306.332.98,000-15,000Very serious9,578.8221.15,000-8,000Serious19,322.2642.52,500-5,000Moderate7,161.2515.8<2,500Low8,052.34中国煤化工Data source: The YRCC, 2004.MYHiCNM HG288Chen G. B., Huang G. B. / Ecological Economy (2010)6:283-294Jinghe watershed to the Yellow River was about management, and have not recognized the need in0.26 billion tons over the past 44 years, with a rate developing management system. Local knowledgeof 5,980 tons sand transferred from per square and options are thus not integrated in the processkilometers of the watershed. Seasonal variation of water development. Local people are not will-of sand transfer is observed. During December to ing to take responsibility for their water resourcesJanuary, sand concentration in Jinghe River is 0.23 system, and they become accustomed to looking tokg/m' to 0.37 kg/km', but increases to 308 kg/“government" for help for local system design andm2-332 kg/m’from July to August "l. Soil erosion operation and maintenance, rather than to lookingconcentrates mainly on slopes during periods ex-to themselves. In fact, local farmers usually aretending from July to September each year. About willing to participate in collective labor if they are0.7 million tons of organic matter, 3,500 tons of well motivated, for example, to come out to dignitrogen, 1,800 tons of phosphate and 16,000 tons ditches and to plant trees in winter months whenof potassium are washed away every year causing there is lttle farm work to do, responding to thedeteriorating of soil fertility and productivity, aver- nation's call to plant trees even without immediateage crop yield on the slopes is only 1,056 kg/hal4.compensation for their work. However, this moti-Uneven distribution of rainfall, loose structure vation is unlikely missing in water sector.of sand soil, segmental topography, wide distribu-tion of slopes and valleys, and human interventions4.5 Insufficient coordination between waterare major causes of soil erosion. Annual rainfall management organizationsdistribution is 700 mm in the south and 300 mm inthe north and it concentrates on months from JulyThere are about six major water organizationsto September, occupying 59% and 72% of the totalat each of the 31 counties of the watershed, butrainfall respectively. Human intervention, such overall coordination is missing leading to improp-as encroachment into forest for agricultural pro-er resolution of conflicts in water use. A typicalduction, mining and road construction, caused an example is confict in water consumption betweenincrease of sand quantity by 5 million tons in the upper, middle and down stream of the watershed.1990sIn upper stream, especially in Liupanshan Moun-Slope cultivation is a common practice and tain region where there is a national natural resortmain cause of soil erosion in the area. Existing and intensive water consumption is not allowed,terraces are mostly manually constructed (as op-rivers flow into and are used by the middle stream.posed to machine-constructed), and are usually The upper stream counties have been keen in re-very narrow in width. In Jingchuan County, for in-questing compensation from the middle stream,stance, the top of the plateau retains a small piece but rejected by saying that compensation should beof flat ground, called tableland or platform land, as given by down streams where intensive economicindicated by top edge of the slopes. It is not large activities and high returns are obtained from waterenough to support an ever-expanding population, consumption. This dispute has been lasting forand the surrounding slopes are terraced for cultiva- couple of years but no organization is taking re-tion causing severe erosion.sponsibilities to solve this confict.Rest of the issues addressed by the farmers is4.4 Lack of stakeholders' participation in water weak awareness of natural resources conservation,managementand lack technical know-how. Natural resources,particularly water resources, are considered asResults from PRA and questionnaire show thatpublic resources, and local people can have accessnone of the farmers surveyed have been involved to water free of charge, and they do not pay muchin meetings or decision-making process or train-attention中国煤化工y, due to pooring courses related to water resources use and economidYHC N M H Gitutional sup-289Chen G. B., Huang G. B. / Ecological Economy (2010)6:283-294port of the region, normally, farmers do not have projects in the watershed.access to technical training or have opportunity toknow techniques for natural conservation causing 5.2 County level organizationslow water use efficiency.Each county in the watershed has several orga-5 Existing organizations involved in water re- nizations with responsibilities for water and relatedsources development in the watershedsections. The primary county organizations in itswater-related sectors are:There is a wide array of organizations respon-(1) Development and Reform Commission:sible for decisions in watershed's water devel- responsible for coordinated planning and develop-opment, at national, watershed and local levelsment of water and related resources, and especial-(Fig.3).ly, it is in a position of water pricing.(2) Water Conservancy Bureau: responsible for5.1 Yellow River Conservancy Commission (YRCC) surface water distribution, water canal construc-tion and maintenance.The YRCC is an agency of Ministry of Water(3) Hydrological Bureau: in charge of ground-Resources in charge of the Yellow River basin and water survey and quality inspection.inland river basins in provinces where Jinghe wa-(4) Urban Construction Bureau: design andtershed is located on behalf of the Ministry of Wa- construction of the county's water supply systemter Resources, responsible for water administrationand provision of water for domestic and industrialin the watershed.use, and collection of water use fees.The YRCC is responsible for integrated plan-(5) Bureau of Public Health: quality monitor-ning and development of water resources in the ing of drinking water.watershed. Its major efforts include water and(6) Bureau of Environmental Protection: re-soil conservation and ecological restoration and sponsible for quality monitoring of surface water.dynamic monitoring, drawing up plans for inter-Each of the organizations has specificprovincial water distribution and water regulation, division(s) and personnel taking aforementionedand implementing and manageming the key water responsibilities. However, responsibilities may be,State CouncilMinistry ofProvincial GovermmentWaterResourcesMunicipal Gov"tWater Manag't BureausWatershedConservancyCounty Gov'tCommissionTownship Gov'tWater Manag't OfficesSector SystemLocal Systemn中国煤化工Fig.3. Framework of water resources manager.MYHCNMHG290Chen G. B., Huang G. B. / Ecological Economy (2010)6:283-294to some extent, overlapping, dispersed and vague.ment. As a result, several organizations will appearFor example, locally, surface water, groundwater to collect pollution fees without taking water con-and water for domestic users are managed by three servation and proper discharge and treatment ofdifferent organizations namely Water Conser- wastewater into consideration. Meanwhile, as no .vancy Bureau, Hydrological Bureau and Bureau fee is charged for irrigation and TVEs, intensiveof Urban Construction; there is no communication and wasteful water use is observed in different sec-and coordination among them. This is commonly torscalled“an entire waterbody is separated into threeparts”by local officials during PRA. At present,6 Integrated water resources management: thethe YRCC is responsible for water resource alloca- way forwardtion and management in Jinghe watershed, whileeconomic planning and environmental protectionThe debate has highlighted the need for aare under jurisdiction of other agencies within well-defined strategy for sustainable developmentrespective provinces and counties. A problem for through taking economic and social needs of thenational organization like YRCC is that they tend community into account, and at the same time pro-to be highly centralized and isolated. This makes it viding institutional framework to implement suchdifficult for them to work with local organizations a strategy. A holistic approach - integrated waterand incorporate local knowledge that can result in resources management is required to coordinatedlocal-level concerns escaping their attention (such management of water resources so as to ensureas provision of drinking water and mitigation oftheir equitable, sustainable and efficient use.water related disasters). And some of the local or-ganizations are profit oriented and keen in waste6.1 Institutional arrangementwater management as it is based on“fine” or“pun-ishment" system rather than regulations. ThoseA focus issue in China is to establish institu-companies who are able to offer the amount of the tional mechanisms for effective watershed man-“fine”can continue to discharge polluted water if agement and to gain routine control. To ensure thethey think that the amount fined is less than the success of such a management approach for theamount they have to spend on wastewater treat- watershed, coordination and integration amongCENTRAL GOVERNMENTPROVINCIAL/EXECUTING AGENCIESRESPONSUILITIESMINISTRYLEVELMUNICIPALLEVELOther ministries whosefunctions are related to watermanaggementCoordinate, plan and implement water saring projetsAgniulural BureauReadust stucbure of agiculural productioncrsutCoordinate, research and promnote clean producton andMinistay of Water ResourcesBureau of Science andTechmolgy 。”waste minimization technology t the industydiseoversteCoordinate and implement development plans for theYellow River ConservancyJinghe WatershedComissionCoordinating ComitteAllocate watr, cllect taiffsconsultProvincialMuriceipelGorennertWater ConservancyPrevent and control soil and water erosionBureauMonitor water qualty,Coordinat, plan and implement wastwater pojectsSocio-cconomit plannng and developmentOther Departments orBureaus中国煤化工Fig.4. Proposed institutional arrangement for integrated watYHCN M H Gshed291Chen G. B., Huang G. B. / Ecological Economy (2010)6:283-294the agencies will need to be strengthened. This in- groundwater water use for increasing awarenesscludes delineation of administrative organizations, that water has an economic value in all its uses,roles, and responsibilities (Fig.4). .and should be recognized as an economic good”,The option of establishing a Watershed Coor- and its use must be limited. But a survey of farm-dinating Committee (WCC) or consultative bodyers' willingness and capability in offering the pric-of some sort even for a wholly intra-provincial es is required for a rational pricing system. Second,watershed should not be rejected. Moreover, apricing for water pollution. A wastewater treatmentWater Conservancy Bureau (WCB) is proposed for taxation policy will need to be introduced and im-each of the counties in the watershed. The Bureauplemented so as to maximize economic returns ofis formulated from water management bodies cur- investments in pollution control under the“polluterrently scattering in water management organiza-pays" principle 14. 15. This policy should be inte-tions. In this organizational framework, national grated into Water Law and implemented strictly, asgovernment can have a moderating role between addressed by local water managers. There is a highthe provinces while also promoting national inter- need to introduce market mechanism for water use,est. And the YRCC can be helpful in extendingas reported in the Middle East“. And wastewateravailable knowledge and increasing understanding fees should be collected on the basis of percentageof the water systems in the watershed. The Com- of total output of the company .mission can also assist WCC and WCB with con-However, any move to raise the traditionallysultancy and human resources development, and low water price will encounter a strong challengepay more attention to the interests of local people.from farmers, as they perceive it as an acquiredAn important aspect will be strict enforcement of right. Similarly, reducing water pollution in thepolicies and regulations as well as training of staff.watershed requires coordinated policies and stepsAt the same time, the provinces would have a to lower municipal and industrial discharges ofstrong say in governance of the watershed, wouldwastewater. AII such fundamental changes in poli-be exposed to interests and arguments of other cies and practices will be slow, involve continuousprovinces, and become committed through agree-public education on environmental conservation,ment to watershed plans, policies and data sharing. and take a long time to materialize.And WCB would be in a position to commit water(3) To initiate watershed protection programdevelopment and management activities within the that lays out the responsibilities of all the partiesadministrative boundary.involved in watershed management, provide faircompensation to the service providers, particularly6.2 Policy reformsat upper streams, use an appropriate mix of finan-cial incentives, regulations, land acquisitions, andThe policy may have to cover the followingother mechanisms, and make improved livelihoodsaspects:in the watershed an explicit goal along with water(1) To control water use. Water use permissionquality protection. This model has been successfulsystem or“permission card”should be adopted in New York City's watershed protection programfor surface and groundwater resources in the wa- 17 , and modified versions would be very useful fortershed, which should be based on assessment of developing countries that are facing strong demo-water demand and supply.graphic pressures and are already supporting agri-(2) To adopt an appropriate pricing policy. cultural, forestry, and other economic activities.Pricing mechanisms are means for a more efficientwater resources management, including provision 6.3 Capacity building in water sectorof water services 4. There are two aspects that :should be taken into consideration for water pric-Human I中国煤化工ld be ad-ing in the watershed, first, pricing for surface and opted througMYHCNMH Gan, which292Chen G. B.. Huang G. B. / Ecological Economy (2010)6:283- 294would have to include on-job training of water sion, and river pollution, as highlighted by localmanagers through sophisticated knowledge and people. Existing organizations at national and localtechnology like Geographic Information System, levels failed to handle the problems sucessfullyas well as training for farmers on awareness rising due to vagueness and overlapping of responsibilityof water scarcity, and on formulation of water us-and rights, and profit minded practices. A positiveers' group or association. On-site demonstration, vision for future development of the watersheddissemination materials and posters all are useful will have to rely on integrated water managementmeans in this case.including institutional arrangements and water pol-icies, introduction of water conservation, and pol-6.4 Community involvementlution and erosion control. Stakeholders' participa-tion provides a basis for“bottom-up”managementCommunity water supply rank the first in water initiative. The approach is not new in China. It hasuse purposes in IWRM [181 calling for active par- existed for many years. But it has unlikely beenticipation of entire community in water develop- implemented in the Jinghe watershed. A real actionment and management. The success of any policy is to be taken urgently, which could apply co-man-depends to a large extent on the involvement and agement method involving the shared administra-ownership of the people at which it aims, both as tion of natural resources by two or more partiesindividuals and groups [191. Formulation of water[20]. This will depend on willingness of the stateusers' group or association is strongly recom- and provincial governments to institute reforms,mended for positive participation of the commu-as well as their reorganization of the value of so-nity. Each township should establish at least one cial capita in resources management, which needswater user's group or association to organize localto fully integrate various management functionspeople in participating in water management ac- within the watershed, which will be a challenge totivities, monitor water use, resolve conficts among the institutions working at the watershed scale, es-users, and charge water use fees. The group or as- pecially where there are diverse responsibilities insociation could have close links with governmentmany agencies within different government levels.agencies involved in water resource management. Transparency, predictability and enforcement areThe regulatory or legal structures should be made required in institutional reforms.in order to motivate the less willing farmers tocooperate. Equitable partnerships between water Acknowledgementsresources protectors, such as these upper streamsand consumers such as these downstream shouldThis research is supported by the Nationalbe established.Natural Science Foundation of China (grant No.30670374), National Key Project for basic re-7 Conclusionssearch in agricultural environment (grant No.2002CB111506), and Knowledge Innovation Pro-The challenge in water resources management gram of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (grantis to create management systems where the formal No. 06W60000SZ, 066U0401SZ).decision- makers interact with relevant members ofscientific community, users and other stakehold- Referencesers for a coordinated approach that successfullyorchestrates water uses towards internal compat-[1] Falkenmark M, LARS Gottschalk L, Lundqvist J, Wout-ibility ". The top-down approach in water devel-ers P. 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