

Controlling factors for largeand the overpressure impact for the formation of large gasfields. However, in recent years, great achievements ingas field formation in thrustexploration of coal-derived hydrocarbon foreland basinsin central-western China have been obtained, leading tobelt of Kuga coal derivedthe discoveries of medium and large gas fields such ashydrocarbon foreland basinKekeya, Hutubi, Kela 2, Dabei 1, Dina 2, Tuzi l, nanbaxian, Baimamiao, etc. Accordingly, the coal-derivedhydrocarbon foreland basins have become the new fronSONG Yan, JIA Chengzao, ZHAO Mengjun'tier for natural gas exploration. This paper takes thetiAN Zuojiwell-explored Kuqa depression as an example to discuss1. Researchof Petroleum Exploration and Development, Pe- the controlling factors for formation of medium and largeoChina100083,China(e-mail:sya@petrochina.com.cn)gas fields in the coal derived hydrocarbon foreland basinsing 1000l1, China1 Coal-bearing formation provided sufficientAbstract Kuqa depression is a foreland basin developed hydrocarbon sources for the formation of large gaswith Mesozoic-Triassic-Jurassic coal-bearing formation. The fieldsesearch results of the coal-derived hydrocarbon forelandbasins in Kuqa depression indicated that the coal-bearingCoal-bearing gas source rocks are the crucial sourceformation can be the rich sources for generating gas because rocks for formation of medium and large gas fields. Forof their thickness and rich source rocks with gas-generating instance, many coal-derived gas fields associated withpredominant kerogen. Although the foreland thrust belt Jurassic coal-bearing source rocks have been discoveredmainly acting in compression is very complicated, integrlarge structural traps can be formed. Moreover, the thrustin the Central asian coal-derived gas accumulationbelt can act as the passage for communication with deeparea 7, 8I. The Jurassic coal bearing formation is the prisource rocks. The high quality gypsolish and gypseous mud- mary coal-bearing source rocks in western China and hasstone cap rock developed in the upper formation is the key great potential for hydrocarbon generation 9-4. The Jufor the formation of the large gas field. The late formation of rassic formation dominated by coal-bearing source rocksreservoirs in the large gas fields depended on the hydrocar- and Triassic formation dominated by lacustrine sourcebon-generating history controlled by the foreland basin and rocks are the primary gas source rocks in Kuga depres-the developing process of foreland thrust beltsion[13-17 which are the material basis for the formationKeywords: foreland basin, thrust belt, coal-bearing formation, large of large gas fields such as Kela 2.gas field.(1) Highly abundant source rocks. Triassic andForeland basins have great potential for explorationJurassic sediments featured as fluvial lacustrine andFor instance, there are many examples of large gas fields swamp facies(81, of which the shaly source rocks werein typical foreland basins abroad including Zagelos foredeveloped with the following features!land, Rocky mountain foreland and Akema foreland(1)Extensive distribution with great thickness. Thewhere the old passive continental-marginal marine source plan distribution and thickness of Kuqa Mesozoic sourcerocks were the basic source of hydrocarbon(2). Significant rocks are shown in fig. 1. It can be seen that the distribuamount of natural gas was generated and drained because tion scope of Triassic source rock corresponds to the covof high maturity due to deep burial during the foreland erage of Kuqa depression while the distribution of Jurasperiodsic source rock exceeds the scope of Kuqa depressionBecause of the influence of tethTriaSourceck in Kuqa depression has great thickJurassic coal-bearing formation was developed exten- ness with the outcrop thickness of 230--600 m normallsively and became the predominant gas source rocks in in the northern part and the maximum thickness of Kumany foreland basins such as Kuqa, southwestern margin gahe profile up to 800 m. Towards the southern margin ofof Tarim, western margin of Sichuan, southern margin of the basin. this set of source rock was thinning to only 50Junggar and northern margin of Qaidum in the central-western China. This is substantially different from the -100 m as revealed from the exploratory wells. It isgas source basis for large gas fields in typical foreland about 300 m thick in well Yinan 2 in the eastbasins abroad2] and different from the accumulationThe Jurassic formation was overlain above the triasmodel of natural gas inc areas 5.61the jurassic dark shale wasIn the early stage, it had been unclear whether thedist中国煤化工eater than thatlarge gas field could form in the coal-bearing formation of of thCNMHG1. But its tendeforeland thrust belt because of those uncertainties includ- thickening in the south and thinning in the north correing the hydrocarbon-generating capability, formation of sponds to that of distribution of Triassic source rocklarge structural traps through strong structural movement, Jurassic source rock in the outcrop section of northernChinese S序嫂 letin Vo.47Supp. December2002Tugerlang2 Baichero Yanga 4Sh日 AkesuNanka 1Area name Trassic source Triassic source rockof sections/drillingFig. 1. Locations of major outcrop sections and thickness distribution of Jurassic and Triassic HC source rocks in Kuqa depression.straight line anticlinal zone is normally 250-600 m whileThe coal-bearing formation in Kuqa depression wasJurassic source rock in the Kugahe section is 770 m, with distributed primarily in middle and lower Jurassic andthining to only about 100 m towards the uplifting of Tabei upper Triassic formations. The overall thickness of coaland only some 30 m in the Yingmaili area in the southern formation is normally 20-60 m; the toC of coal in Kuqamargin of the basindepression is 11.51%0-85.7%o, normally 45%65%0;A(2) High abundance of organic matter. Jurassic coal- is 0.161%--4.4132%, about 1% on average; HC is(419-bearing source rocks in Kuga depression have high abun- 11349)x10-6 4167x10-6 on average: PG is 9.86-220.6dance of organic matter, similar to the Jurassic formation mg/g, 87.55 mg/g normallyin the northwestern areallol. Jurassic source rock normally(3)High maturity. High maturity of source rocks ishas abundant organic matter while Triassic is medium- one of the causes for natural gas enrichment in Kugali91high in organic matter abundance. However, the evaluaFrom the results of both actural measurement and simulation of source rock revealed that the level in terms of py- tion it is indicated that most of present Triassic sourceolysis generation potential (PG), extracted dissolvable rocks entered an overmature stage with the areas of wellsorganic matter("A")and total hydrocarbon(HC) was Kela 1, Kela 2 and Dongqiu 5 reaching the highest matur-obviously lower than that in terms of organic carbonTOC), attributed primarily to the impact of maturity. ity, and a vitrinite reflectance of 2.0%--2.6%. The presentGenerally, as to the source rock at the mature stage, the Jurassic source rock lies in Baicheng Sag, featuring highlyresult of ToC evaluation is not much different from the thermal evolution and a vitrinite reflectance of 1.2%evaluation result in terms of PG, "A"and HC. for example, 2.3%0, entering a high-overmature stage. While thethe tugerming section, the Jurassic formation in wellYangxia area in the east was at the mature stage with aYinan 2 and the Jurassic formation in the Kugahe section; vitrinite reflectance of 1.0%-1.4%as to a source rock at the high-overmature stage, the result(1) Gas predominant product attributed to propertyof Toc evaluation is much better than the evaluation of organic matterresult in terms of PG,"Aand HC, for example, the(1) Humic organic matter. It can be found from theXiaotailanhe section, the Awatehe section, the Kashansha- analysis of kerogen elements in source rocks of Kuqalianghe section and the Kelasu section. Because of the depr中国煤化工 C atoms is normally lessprocess of HC generation and drainage at the overmature thanCNMHGCkS. It indicates that typestage, the abundance of dissolvable organic matter in LIt maulti was picuuillant in Triassic and Jurassource rock at the high-overmature stage is obviously sic source rocks(fig. 2), composed mainly of continentallower than that at the low-mature stagehigher plants. The distribution of carbon isotope in kero-Chinese Science Bulletin Vol 47 Supp. December 2002gen of Jurassic coal-bearing shale is%0-26% pri- might be destroyed completely and only the gas generatedmarily in a range of -22 %0--25 %o with an average of since the Neogene is effective for the formation of naturalgas reservoirs. The maximum gas generation intensity of23.54 %bAsed on the identification criteria proposed oy Triassic source rock so far since Neogene age is onlyHuang Difan( 20, the same conclusion is drawn that typeL, kerogen was primarily predominant and LL, secon-108m/km2. far less than that of 75x108 m/kmdarily in Jurassic coal-bearing mudstone and the distribu- Jurassic rock. 4)The simulation on the basis of above datation of carbon isotope of kerogen in Triassic mudstone is showed that Kuga depression has a resource of about22%00--28 %o with type LI I. organic matter pre-26x10 t with a gas to oil equivalent ratio of 5: 1dominated2 Control of foreland thrust belt over the formationof large gas fieldsLarge tectonic traps could be formed during theevolution of the thrust belts in the foreland basins in thecentral-western China such as the Kuqa forelandbasin 25-28, imposing obvious control over the formationof large gas fields 27-31.( I) Late forming of large gas accumulation struc-tures. During the late Cretaceous, the Kuqa area experienced a regional uplift. The anticlinal embryoes formed inareas such as Yiqikelake anticline and Tugerming anticline,s可resulting from the horizontal compression laterally. By theend of Paleogene, influenced by collision of the Indiplate to the Qinghai-Tibet plate, an intracontinental subduction of the northern tarim basin towards the tianshanorogenic zone made tianshan rapidly uplifted, leading to0000050.100.150.200250.300.35thickental red sediformation in thepiedmont depression/32. The tectonic deformations sinceO/C atom ratiothe miocene are primarily characterized by getting youngFig. 2. Schematic of kerogen type in HC source rocks of Kuga depres- er sequentially from north to south, forming forwardC, Kuqahe Jurassic;.I, Kapushaliang spreading thrust structures and various fault associatedfolds. The Misbulake anticlinal structure in the mostlynorthern Jiesdelike anticlinal zone of Kuqa overriding(2)Kuga depression prolific resources predominated tectonic zone formed earliest while the Ke(lasu)-by gas. Since the Triassic formation is composed of Yi(qikeleke)tectonic zone formed later. The tectonic agood type of source rocks, a certain amount of oil should tivity continued during Kuga and Xiyu periods, whichhave been generated at the mature stage. So, the explora- caused the formation of Kelabahe anticline, Kumgeliemution for the intact oil reservoirs formed in the early stage anticline, Bashijiqike anticline first and then the formationshould not be neglected in Kuqa foreland depression. of kesantuokai anticline and kelasu anticline/27.28)However, the studies have increasingly indicated that(1)Integral fault associated folds developed inKuqa depression has good prospective for natural gas thrust belt. The faulted surface is very hard to act as theexploration>-. It is easy to recognize from the fol- lateral seal for oil and gas and fault usually tends to de-lowing points that Kuqa foreland oil and gas system with stroy the sealing confinement of the cap rock. a great dealthe Jurassic and Triassic formation as the primary source of folds associated with flat/ramp thrust faults developedrocks is eventually a system with prolific resources an- in the thrust belt of Kuqa rejuvenated foreland basin, in-riched by natural gas: 1)Gas is the primary hC product cluding formation of fault-bend fold, fault propagationfrom Jurassic source rocks predominated by type LI or- fold, detachment fold, fault propagation-detachment hy-matter/24. 2)c-Jurassic source rocks were at brid fold, duplex structure, pop-up structure, fault-bend-the high-overmature stage with gas product predominated. dectachment hybrid fold, complex wedge structure, fault-3)The total gas generation intensity of Jurassic source bengVL-d structure, etc, 26-28)rock was higher than that of Triassic, i.e. the maximum whid中国煤化 formation of large integralgas generation intensity of Jurassic rock was over 80x10CN MH Ghe Kelasu duplex thrustm/km but that of triassic rock 50x108 m3/km2 It is notstructure consists of 3-4 stepwise thrust faults incisinged particularly that the natural gas in the oil and gas reser- Cretaceous and Jurassic formations and southwardvoirs generated during the Neogene in Kuqa depression thrusting and a large passive hanger reverse thrust faultChinese S序嫂弻 etin Vo.47Supp. December2002developed in the top Eogene gyps-salt formation. The km-wide abnormal overpressure zone in California wastion. The height of anticlinal uplift was jointly predomi- zoneyed with the developing of San Andress faultstructure was completely overlaid by the Eogene forma-nated by the number of faults, dipping angle and throw ofThe Kelasu tectonic zone in Kuga depression initiat-each fault and the thickness of formation incised by the ed during the Neogene Jidike period and patterned in thelower faulted slope, forming the Keshen tectonic zone, late Himalaya movement( Kuga period) 532. A set of overKelasu anticlinal zone and Bashen tectonic zone. The 400-m-thick regional gyps-shale-salt cap rocks overlaidintegral Kela 2 anticline is located in the eastern section of the Eogene and Cretaceous reservoirs and their goodthe Kelasu tectonic zonesealing had created a condition for the abnormal overpres-(ii) Fault zone being the important passage for oil sure generation. The extensive horizontal compressionand gas migration. The foreland thrust faults not only during the late Himalaya movement was the drive forcontrolled the structural pattern of fault associated folds, abnormal overpressure generation. The compression stressbut acted as the passage for the vertical migration of oil made formation pore pressure decrease, and the Tertiaryand gas 26 29). Since the source rocks in Kuga depression gyps-shale overlying the entire depression caused poorwere primarily middle and upper Triassic and middle and drainage and displacement of formation fluid, leadinlower Jurassic formation, and the formation above the the formation of gas reservoirs with abnormal overpresJurassic formation had no capability for hydrocarbon sure 36, 37, for instance, the pressure coefficient is 1.95generation, therefore, faults became the only passage for 2.20 MPa in Kela 2 gas fieldvertical migration of oil and gas in the reservoir-cap rockassemblage above Jurassic due to existence of very thick 3 A crucial key to large gas field formation-de-Cretaceous and upper Jurassic mudstone distributed be. veloping of regional gyps-shale cap rockstween source rocks and reservoirs, Therefore. as to faultGood quality regional cap rock is a key to the formbend fold, fault propagation-detachment hybrid fold or ing of large gas field in any tectonic setting 51.Eogeneuplex structure, the fault flat of the stepwise thrust faults mudstone and gyps-salt rocks are the primary regional caphad to incise into Jurassic-Triassic source rocks to provide rocks in Kuqa depression, imposing obviously controla passage for communication between oil and gas source over the formation and distribution of reservoirs in thedepression 33.39. Secondly, Jurassic, Neogene Jidike group,and the traps ig. 3), for example, there were primarily Kangcun group and Kuqa group acted also as the capthree stepwise thrust faults incising through Cretaceous rocks. The very thick(100-3000 m) Eogene gyps-saltand Jurassic formation by means of southward thrustingshale regional cap overlaid basically the whole area. Thisset of cap rocks was very tight with high breakthroughFault propagated foldpressure as well as abnormal overpressure, constitutingegional cap rocks with extremely strong sealing. ForFault propagatd-decollementf Fault incising intoDuplex structureoverpressure confinement box with an overpressure up to15 MPa, playing a sealing and controling role above Kela从入2 gas fieldFrom the plan, the Eogene gyps-shale acted as aTummImqImluIyImmn Dawanqi and Yangtake structures, as medium-fair caps inood sealing cap in the Kelasu area, as fair caps inYinan and Yingmaili structures, and as medium-poor capin Yaha, Luntai-Tiergen structures Neogene Jidike groupFig 3. Communication modes of oil and gas sources through faults in gyps-shale acted as good cap rocks in Dawanqi, Yinanand Yaha areas, and as fair-good cap rocks in Yingmailand Luntai-Tiergen structure( Tectonic compression due to foreland thrusting4 Features of late gas accumulationthe main cause for the formation of abnormal over-The Kuqa foreland basin was in its primary develpressure gas reservoir. In the laterally compressed baoDIn中国煤化工sins, tectonic compression had resulted in rock strain, pore sourdgas generation reached avolume decrease, and increase of porous pressure to create highCNMHGlarge gas accumulationabnormal overpressure if undue flow, drainage and displa- structures formed primarily under the impact of tectoniccement happened in the pores of shaly rocks.34. For deformation. Therefore the Kuqa foreland basin has ainstance. the formation of a 650-800-km-long 40.-130. clear feature of late gas accumulation(fig 4)Chinese Science Bulletin Vol 47 Supp. December 2002150(Ma)GeologicalSource rockReservoiras) JsystemHC generationReservatioCrucial timFig 4. Diagram of events for oil and gas accumulation in Kuqa defron ( i Late gas accumulation primarily as indicated experienced a long distance lateral migration northwardsHC generation history of source rocks. Primarily, and accumulated in the early piedmont structures, formingmiddle and upper Triassic source rocks reached oil gen- Kumugeliemu, Misbulake and Heiyingshan oil and gaseration peak by the end of Paleogene while middle and reservoirs. By experiencing the same long lateral migraeration peak durine e rocks reached the oil and gas gen- tion southwards, oil reservoirs with Yaha buried hillthe Neogene. Especially, after enter- Yingmaili buried hill and overlying Jurassic and Creta-ing the Kuqa period (after 5 Ma), the foreland basin was ceous formation as reservoir rocks were formed. Howeversubsided rapidly and was buried deeply, leading to a rapid in the absence of fault in Kuqa depression, there were noentrance of Triassic and Jurassic source rocks into a gen- driving mechanism for trap forming and passage foreration stage for wet gas-dry gascommunicating with oil and gas sources( 1) Himalaya tectonic movement matching theThe late(since Neogene, primarily N2-Q) formationprimary period for gas generation. As mentioned above, of oil and gas reservoirs occurred with both lateral andhe tectonic deformation was most intensive since Mio- vertical hydrocarbon migrations. The products generatedcene, with the forward spreading thrust structure and vari- from highly matured Triassic and Jurassic source rocksous types of fault associated folds getting younger se- migrated mainly in the phase of gas. They made a longquentially from north to south. It was a patterned stage for lateral migration southwards form reservoirs in the frontthe main structures in the Kuqa foreland basin. The late marginal uplifts (i.e. Yudong 2, Yangtake, Tiergen and Taitectonic deformation had destroyed and modified the oil 2)or mixed with the early oil and gas to form a series ofand gas reservoirs formed early on one hand, and the time gas condensate/condensate reservoirs in Luntai faultedof their occurrence matched with the period of primary uplift (i.e. Yingmai 7, Hongqi, Yaha, etc ) and lithologigas generation and drainage on the other hand, resulting in callyd gas condensate/condensate reservoirs at thethe fact that the gas became the dominate pro- duct insIoThese gases also migrated vertically in thehose traps formed at that period(fig. 4)depression to form self- reservoir type (i.e. Yinan 2, D)ga(ii)Oil and gas reservoir forming in two phases and condensate reservoirs and dry gas reservoirs, as well aslate gas accumulation. Kuqa depression has a feature of those (i.e. Kela 2, 3, E)with source and reservoir rocks intwo phase oil/gas formation and late gas accumulationproxThe early (end of Cretaceous period-Eogene) formation ofreservoir was predominated by lateral migration. At that5中国煤化工 fitime, the tectonic stress intensity was not great, resultingCNMHGgas fields have been dis-in the empryoes of compressed structures formed only in covered in Kuqa depression, forming another large gasthe piedmont of southern Tianshan. Therefore, the oil and area in western Chinal22z23), It has laid a material foundagas generated primarily from the Triassic source rock tion for the West-East Gas Pipeline Project in China. TheChinese S序嫂弻 etin Vo.47Supp. December2002predominant control factors for natural gas accumulationBeijing: Petroleum Industry Press, 1997, 45"-70in Kuqa depression are obviously distinct from those inthe Sichuan basin and the Ordos basin in Central 4. Dai Jinxing, Zhong Ningning, Liu Dehan et al., Geological BasisChina,. The main difference is that the natural gas isand Mainly Control Factors of Coal Derivaccumulated in a craton setting in the sichuan Basin andthe Ordos Basin, whereas in Kuqa depression, gas is apFields in China (in Chinese), Beijing: Geological Publishingcumulated in a setting of coal-bearing formation in theforeland thrust belt5. Dai Jinxing, Wang Tingbing, Song Yan et al., Conditions andThe fact has proved that large gas fields can be foundin the coal-bearing formation of foreland basin From theDistribution of Formation of Large-Medium Natural Gas Fieldsstudy on Kuqa depression, it is recognized that the thickChina(in Chinese), Beijing: Geological Publishing House, 1997.coal-bearing source rocks contain high abundance of organic matter and gas-generation dominated kerogen58-93which can provide a sufficient gas source. Although the 6. Song Yan, Dai Jinxing, Dai Chunshen et al., Primary modes forcompression-dominated foreland thrust belt is very com-plicated, large integral structures could be formed. Thesereservoir occurrence and the distribution of large-medium gasssagefields in China, Science in China, Ser. D, 1996, 26(6): 499deep source, also could be the driving force to generate 7. Dai Jinxing, He Bing, Sun Yongxiang et al Formation and sourceoverpressure. The good quality gyps-shale cap rock deeloped in the upper formation is the key to the formationrocks of accumulation area of coal derived gas in Central Asia.f large gas fields. The late formation of reservoirs in theOil Exploration Development(in Chinese), 1995, 22(3): Ilarge gas field is attributed to the HC generation historcontrolled by the foreland basin and the developing of8. Dai Jinxing, Li Xianqi, Features of eastern accumulation zone inforeland thrust beltcoal derived gas accumulation area in Central Asia, Oil Explora-The level of exploration and study in many areas oftion Development(in Chinese), 1995, 22(5): Ithe central-western china such as taxinan western mar-gin of Sichuan, southern margin of Junggar, northen mar9. Dai Jinxing, Song Yan, Zhang Houfu, Primary control factors ofgin of Qaidam and so on is still low. But, they have simiformation of large-medium natural gas in China, Science in Chinalar features as the Kuqa foreland basin 30, for example, inSer.D.1996,26(6:48these areas. Mesozoic coal formation as source rocksstrong foreland thrust tectonic movement and a set of10. Chen Jianping, Zhao Wenzhi, Qin Yong et al, Oil gas genera-aline lacustrine cap rocks developed in the upper formation in Jurassic coal system in Northwestern China(A), Oil Explotion, etc. Therefore, summarizing predominant factors foration& Development (in Chinese), 1998. 25(3): 1the large gas field forming in the foreland thrust belt of 11. Chen Jianping, Zhao Wenzhi, Qin Yong et al.Oil gas genera-the Kuqa coal-derived hydrocarbon basin has very important and instructive significance for the natural gastion in Jurassic coal system in Northwestern China(B), Oil Explo-exploration in similar basins of the central-western China.ration Development(in Chinese), 1998, 25(4): 3Acknowledgements This work was supported by the sub-project- 12. 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