Effect of land cover on water quality of creek and seepage in mountainous watershed in Bangladesh

Joumal of Forestry Research (2010) 21(2): 251-254DOI 10.1007/s1 1676-010-0041-zRESEARCH PAPEREffect of land cover on water quality of creek and seepage in moun-tainous watershed in BangladeshS. M. Sirajul Haque : Shyamal Karmakar●M. Mozaffar HossainReceived: 2009-10-16Accepted: 2009-12-22。Northeast Forestry Universty and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelbrg 2010Abstract: The flowing water was cllced from very small creks andbirth rate of the population both from indigenous and migratedseepage water from small dug holes at three different areas, viz. Manik-people was also the reason for high pressure on resources of hillchar, Ghagra and Muralipara in Rangamati ditsrict of Chittagong Hilltracts. In CHTs on 13180-km2 land, indigenous population wasTracts, Bangladesh to investigate the impact of the existing varied land61957 and non-indigenous 1097 in 1872 and reached 1.5 millioncovers on water quality. Chemical analyses shows that flowing creckaltogether in 2007 (Wikipedia 2009). The mountainous water-water fom either mature mixed plantation or young gamar (Gmelinashed of CHTs with beautiful landscape is consisted ofarborea) plantation had significantly (p<0.05) higher pH value, SO2 andsemi- consolidated and consolidated rocks. At least, 12 indige-Ca2* concentrations, and significantly lower Na concentration at Manik-nous communities live here. An earthen dam was constructed inchari, compared to natural vegetation and plantation in combination. In1955 across the Karnaphuli River at Kaptai to gencrate hy-flowing creek water of Ghagra, the concentrations of SO,2* and K, con-dro-electricity. For this reason, huge landmass including agricul-ductivity and total dissolved solids from watershed of 8-year-old teaktural land went under water, for which people shifted to further(Tectona grandis) plantation were significantly higher and the concentra-uphill forest areas and started to clear the forest for habitationstions of HCO;, NO; and PO2* were significanty lower, compared toand subsistence agriculture. Migration of people from plain landthose of watershed of degraded natural vegetation. At Muralipara, flow-to incessible area of CHTs also became easier with the con-ing creek water from natural vegetation and shifting cultivated land instruction of new roads by the Govemment of Bangiadesh.combination showed significantly higher concentrations of HCO, NO;,The migated people subsequently through stlement andNa', K", Ca* and Mg"*, and conductivity and total dissolved solids thanabusive agriculture for their existence made deforestation andseepage water as well as tube well water installed in shifting cultivatedwidespread. The number of families of shifting cultivators overarea alone.the time was also increased from 2163 in 1964 to 35000 in 2002in CHTs (Tripura et al. 2003). There is about 2000-ha landKeywords: plantation; flowing water shifing cultivation; Chittagongunder shifing cultivation every year. Teak (Tectona grandis)Hill Tractswas the first artficial plantation in 1872 in the hill ditricts ofBangladesh. Many diferent timber species subsequently wereplanted by Forest Department and recently people raised fruitIntroductionorchard on many hills. Under the climatic conditions of Bangla-desh, high rainfall occurs every year in the country, of whichSimilar to plain land of Bangladesh, the mountainous watershedabout 80% of rainfall appeared in rainy season between May toof Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHTs) is also now under great stressOctober. During and after the rainy season, large number of plantdue to rapid population increase with the sttlement of peoplespecies comes out naturally in CHTs. Thus, through natural re-from over populated plain land of other parts of the country ingeneration, plantations by Forest Department, rotational shiftingshortage of agricultural land there, each year. In addition, highcultivation and clearing of the vegetation for sttlement and agriculture, no permanent vegetation existed over an extensive areaFoundaion project. This work was fiancially supported by USDA.in many places of CHTs. Some hill people now use tube wellinstead of age-old small dug well by the side of hill for drinkingThe online version is available at htp:////w/ springrink comvater. People also store water in small ponds in valley for theirs. M. Sirajul Haque●Shyamal Karmakar (四●M. Mozaffar Hossindaily 1中国煤化工uroundings of the natu-Institute of Foresty and Environmental Science, University of Chit-ral reswalking to get hygienictagong, Chitagong, Bangladesh, 4331. E-mail: sms haque@yahoo.comwateranve for water in the dryIYHResponsible editor: Zhu Hongthe dwellings. Creek water is usually used for bathing and other见Springer252Joumal of Forestry Research (2010) 21(2);: 251-254bousebold purpose as well as to irigate agricultural land. Undershale or clay layers at the base of hill and avoiding addition ofthe circumstances, the present study was conducted to investigatesurface water. Holes were dug in triplicate and allowed to fillthe impact of existing varied land covers on water quality ofwith water. Each interval distance was from 100 cm to 130 cm atcreek, seepage and tube well by the road sides in Rangamatieach site. Water was collected from each hole in cleaned plasticDistrict.bottle. Thus, water was sampled in the dry season from 17 to 18December, 2007 from three areas namely, Manikchari, GhagraMaterials and methodsand Muralipara, stretching from north to south with decreasingelevation of hll. All the three areas were situated by the side ofSampling procedureRangamati-Manikchari-Ghagra-Kaptai Road in Rangamati hilldistrict. Water sample was collected from 4 flowing creeks atWith the aim to observe land cover efet on water quality, sam-Manikchari area, and 2 flowing creks and lseepage at Ghagraplings were cllected from flowing creeks as well as from seep-area. Water sample was also collected from each flowing creek,ages of the watershed. Since vegetation effect on water qualityseepage and newly istalled tube well at Murali Para area. Eachwas the main objective, selecting creeks or seepages for waterof the creeks or seepages covered small watershed ranging fromsampling were given importance. Moreover, the contamination5 ha to I5 ha on rock material consisted mainly of shale andof water was avoided from discharges of human habitations. AllOrthi-Feric Alisol (UNDP-FAO 1988). Vegetation types at eachwater samplings were ollected from very small flowing creekswater sampling point with major site characteristics are given inwith a width ranging from 1.5 cm to 6 cm and depth from 1 cmTable 1. Same number is used for each vegetation unit in materi-to 3 cm. Seepage water was collected by digging small hole onals and methods as well as in Table 1 and 2.Table 1. Ste charateristics and vegetation types at each water sampling point in Rangamati hill dstriet, BangladeshLand useMajor vegetation compositionCanopyWater sourceAspectHill slopecoverage (%)(%)Manikchari areaManure mixed plantationTeak, gamar and malhagony45Flowing creck Eastem55Notural vegetation and mature mixed plantation Assamlata, sun grass, wild banana, climbers with teak and gamar3(Flowing creek WestermYoung gamar plantationGamar with naturally growing grass in patches3:Flowing creek Northemnatural vetation and mixed plantationSungrass, gass, gamar, teak, jackfruit, mango and banana5 Flowing creck SouthermTeak panationTeak, shrubs and herbsssFlowing creek Eastern70Degraded mixed plantationTeak, gamar, shirish, banana and zinger1SeepageEastemDegraded nanural vegetationBamboo, grass and leguminous species4:Flowing creck astern40Muralipara areaNatural vgetation and shitig cutivnted land Turmeric, zinger and banana with few tees, bamboo and sungrass10Flowing creck Weslem 65Shiting culivated landGamar, zinger, sajina, banana and anumEasternShifting cultivated landTube wellVegetation description of each of the water sampling points ofcreek was at the bottom of hill slope of 55% gradient near Ban-three areasgalee Para. This creek was about 6 km to the south from the sec-ond flowing creek at Sapchari, and 0.5 km inside fom the road.One side of the creek was covered with bamboo and gamar (G.Mature mixed plantation: Water sampling of the first flowingarborea) plantation having 35% of canopy closing on the northemcreek was about 1 km to the south from Manikchari towards Gha-aspect, and the other side with naturally growing grass in patches.gra, a conjunction from which place another road runs towardsBoth the sides of creek had undergrowth coverage in patches.Kaptai. Both sides of this creek were covered with mixed planta-Natural vegetation and mixed plantaion: Water sampling of thetion of teak (Tectona grandis), gamar (Gmelina arborea) and ma-fourth flowing creek was also near Bangalee Para. One side of thehagony (Swietonia mahagony). Natural undergrowth in patcheshill above the creek was covered with mixed plantation of gamar,was more in creek side and gradually decreased towards the hillteak, jackfruit (Arthrocarpus heterophyus) and mango (Mangiferaindica) along with banana and bamboo with 35% tree canopy cCoV-Natural vegetation and mature mixed plantation: Water sam-erage on the southerm aspect on hill slope of slope 65% gradient.pling of the second flowing creek was at Sapchari, about 0.5 km toThe other side of this creek was covered with naturally growingthe south from the first ceek. It was an ephemeral creek that hadgrasses. Water of this flowing creek was used for drinking purposevery minimum flow of water in dry season passing over gully. Oneby the people residing nearby.side of the hill above this creek was covered with mature trees,teak and gamar with undergrowth. The other side of the creekGhagra areasituated on westemn aspect of hill slope of 70% gradient was COV-Teak中国煤化工ne in a flowing creek atered with natural vegetation consisting of assamlata (Euphatoriumaboutlwards Kaptai. Both sidesodoratum) of 30%, sun grass (lmperata cylindrica) of 40%, wildof theMYHC N M H Gd teak plantation on hillbanana of 25% and climbers of 5%.slope of 70% gradient having tree canopy coverage of 55% withYoung gamar plantation: Water sampling of the third flowing shrubs and hetbs as undergrowth.包SpringerJoumal of Forestry Research (2010) 21(2): 251-254253Degraded mixed plantation: Seepage water was sampled atparameter of water quality for a particular location was analyzedKiching Para, and about 3.5 km to the south from Ghagra towardstatistically for Duncan Multiple Range Test using StatisticalKaptai. One side of the hil above this dug-hole was covered withPackage SPSS 12.mature trees, teak, gamar and shirish. This hill with undergrowthcoverage of 10% also contained shiting cultivated crops such asResults and discussionbanana and zinger. Other side of the hill slope with slope gradientof 70% above the dug-hole was denuded with the presence ofManikchari areahabitation.Degraded natural vegetation: Water sampling was from flowingAmong four types of vegetation in Manikchari area, water qualitycreek, and about 1 km to the south from the previous seepage wa-parameters such as the concentrations of HCO;', SO2 and Ca*,ter sampling point. Hill above the creek was covered with dis-and pH, conductivity and total dissolved solids (TDS) of flowingturbed natural forest, frequenty used for cattle grazing of the in-creek from mature mixed plantation were signifcantly (p<0.05)habiants. Vegetation on the hill was mainly of bamboo, grass andhigher, and the concentations of PO4 , NO3-N and Na* signif-leguminous species, giving canopy coverage of 45%。cantly (p<0.05) lower, compared to those of adjacent natural vege-tation and mixed plantation at Sapchari (Table 2). Again, flowingMuralipara areacreek from young gamar (G. arborea) plantation near BangaleeMuralipara belonging to the Phulgaji Forest Range was 1.5km toPara showed significantly (p<0.05) higher concentrations of so4 ,the south from the previous flowing creek. One shifing cutivatedCa2+ and Mg*, and pH, and significantly lower concentrations offamily had been resided permanently at this area. Here, the wholeHCO3, Na* and K* and conductivity, compared to those of adja-area was under shifting cultivation rotationally. Following threecent forest type of natural vegetation and mixed plantation. Severalwater samplings were distributed over a small place.other studies (Yuretich et al. 1981; Morgan and Good 1988; Zam-(1) Natural vegetation and shifting cultivated land: The first wa-pella 1994) also reported that concentrations ofCat+ and Mg* inter sampling at Muralipara area was done from a flowing creek,stream water from disturbed watershed were higher than those ofboth sides of which occupied by shiting cultivated land in patches.undisturbed vegetation, which was in agreement with the presentMajor shifing cultivation crops were turmeric (Curcuma longa),findings. Again, in creek water of mature mixed plantation, thezinger (Zingiber fficinale) and banana on hill slope of 65% gra-concentrations of HCO; and NO; were significantly higher, anddient on westerm aspect. Part of the hill contained natural vegeta-concentrations of Na*, Ca2*, K* and Mg”+ and conductivity weretion consisted of few trees, bamboo and sun grass (Imperatalower, compared to those of gamar (G. arborea) plantation,cylidrica) in patches. In this hill, tree canopy coverage was 30%Flowing water pH, conductivity, and concentrations of HCO3,and undergrowth coverage 70%。SO4, Ca+ as well as TDS from mature mixed plantation were(2) Shifing cultivated land: The shifting cultivated hill above7.74, 370.67 μcm's, 386.33 mg:L", 1.07 mg:L", 17.19 mg:L'the dug-hole for collection of seepage water contained only a fewand 276.67 mg:L' respectively, and their corresponding values inmature trees and gamar mainly. Shifting cultivated crops werenatural vegetation and mature mixed plantation were 6.48, 202.00zinger, sajina (Moringa oleifera), banana and arum (Abrus preca-μcm's, 244.00 mgL', 0.71 mgL', 10.76 and 63.33 mgL" re-torius) around the human habitation. Undergrowth coveragespectively. Flowing creek fom either mature mixed plantation oraround the human habitation was 15% on a hill slope of 65%.young gamar plantation had significantly higher pH, concentra-(3) Shifting cultivated land: Water sarmple was cllected fom ations of SO2 and Ca2* and significantly lower concentrations ofnewly intalled tube-well within the habitation on eastern aspect ofNa* , compared to those of forest type of natural vegetation andthe hill Inhabitants used water of this well for washing, bathingplantation.and drinking purposes. Vegetation, land-use, hill slope and allother features were similar to above described sampling points.Ghagra areaCollction and analyses of water samplesIn flowing creek from watershed of 8-year-old teak plantation, theconductivity and concentaions of so4", K' as well as TDS, wereWater sample was clled from creeks and seepages in tipliatesignifcantly higher, while the concentrations of HCO;, NO3 anin 200-ml polyethylene bottles caped well to prevent leakage andPO3~ were significantly lower, compared to degraded naturalpreserved at 4°C in an icebox. Box was then immediately carriedvegetation with 45% coverage of bamboo, grass and leguminousto the laboratory and filtered sarmples using Whatman paper No.42.species, as well as disturbed area fom cattle grazing at GhagraWater pH was determined using TOA pH meter, conductivity byarea (Table 2). This finding indicated that leaching of nutrient frommeter and TDS by TDScan. Water samples were then preserved inyoung teak plantation was more, compared to that of natural vege-refrigerator at 49C for subsequent analyses. The concentrations oftation. With the degradation of either natural vegetation or planta-base cations such as Ca2* and Mg* were determined usingtion, both creek and seepage water retained less nutrients andPerkin- Elmer, Shelton, CT Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometerleached higher nitrate and sulfate compounds. Observation ofin regional laboratory of Soil Resource Development InstuteZampella et al. (2007) in Mullica river basin was in agreement(Petersen 2002). Dissolve phosphate was analyzed by stannouswith I中国煤化工t degradaion of wa-chloride and ammonium molybdate method (APHA 1998) andter-qualE by upland agriculture.SO2- by BaCl2 method, NO; by salicylation-sodiumn hydroxideIn 8-yeqiYHCNMHGationsofso,andK*method in Jenway Spectrophotometer and, K* and Na* by flameas well as, TDS and conductivity, were 1.62 mgL", 1.67 mg:Lphotometer (Huq and Alam 2005). Each of the data set for any 1.70 mg:L' and 306.67μ.cm 's, and in flowing creek of degraded包Springer254Journal of Forestry Research (2010) 21(2);: 251-254natural vetation 1.46 mgL', 1.30 mgL", 6000 mo.L.+. and198.25μ.cm's, respectively.Table 2. Water qualties from three diferent sources under dfferent land covers in Rangamati bill distriet, BangladeshLand coverWater typepHCondutivity HCO; SO, NO-N PO(pcm'S)_ (mgL) (mgL) (mgL) (meL) (mgL) (mgL') (mgL') (mgL') (ngL")Manikchari areaMature mixed plantationFlowingrek *7.74a 370.67a 386.33 1.07a 2.24a 0.35a 15.50a 1.62a 17.19a 2.158 276.6aNatural vegeation and mature mixed plantation Flowing creek 6.48b 202.00b 244.00b 0.71b 3.59b 0.61b 25.17b 1.32a 10.76b 2.31ab 63330Young gamar plantationFlowing creck 7.75a297.63c 264.33b 1.03a 1.39c 0.70b 23.83b 2.83b 22.42c 2.37b 216.67aNatural vegetation and mixed plantation Flowing creek 7.45c351.00a 366.00a 0.91b 1.8c 0.67b 32.50c 4.28c 10.72b 1.lIe 3333aGhagra areaFlowing creek 7.12a 306.67a 24.00a 1.62a 1.96a 0.25a 15.17a 1.67a’ 19.68a 2.51a 170.00Seepage.6.84b 184.67b 142.33b0 1.11b1.32a0.38a 11.83b 1.30b 13.27b 2.89b 50.00bDegraded naural vegetaionFlowing creck 7.20a 198.25b- 386.33c 1.46a 5.89b. 2.15b 1300b 1.30b: 18.32a 2.54a 60.00bMuralipara areaNatural vegeuation and sitintntitede landFlowingcreek 6.50a 412.67a 366.00 1.85a 5.02a 2.5a 21.00 2.10a 36.22a 3.72a 320.00Shifting cultivaled land6.10b 125.56b 122.00b 2.27b 1.63b 2.89b 9.00b 0.90b 2.98b 1.44b 30.00bHifing cutivated landTube well6.3123.55b 183.00b 1.15a 4.82a 1.68c 12.50c_ 1.25b 9.66c 2.28c 30.00b .Notes: Different ltters indicate significance diference at pS0.05 for the means among diferent land uses at the same location. *Each value for each parameter isthe mean of triplicate water samples from the field.Resources Development Institute in Comilla for providing facili-ties in analyzing some water quality parameters.Flowing water from cultivated land and natural vegetation inReferencespatches at Muralipara had higher conductivity, the concentrationsof HCO3, NO, Na*, K", Ca*, and Mg* as well as TDS, com-APHA. 1998. Standard mehods for the examination of water and wastewater.pared to seepage water (Table 2). At the same area, the concentra-20th ed. Washington DC: Amerian Public Health Association, Americantions of SO4 and PO2 were significantly higher and the concen-Water Works Association, Water Pllution Control Federaion.trations ofNO;, Ca*, Mg2* and Na' signifcantly lower in seepageECR.1997. Enironment Consevarion Rules. Schedule 3. Bangladesh: Dewater, compared to those of tube well water. AlI the water qualitypartment of Envionment, Ministry of Environment and Forest, pp 256.parameters determined for natural drinking water of tube well were Huq SMI. Alam MDU. 200. A Handbook on Analses ofSoil, Plant and Waer.within the safe limit of drinking water standards set in the Envi-BACER-DU, Bangladesh: University of Dhaka, pp.246.ronmental Conservation Rules (ECR 1997).Liu ZJ, Weller DE, Correll DL, Jordan TE. 2000. ffects of Land Cover andComparisons between seepage water qualities showed that theGeology on Stream Chermisty in Watersheds of Cbesapeake Bay. J AmWater Resour As, 36(6); 1349-1365.concentrations of so and K* as well as, TDS and conductivitywere in degraded mixed plantation at Ghagra higher than those inMorgan MD, Good RE. 1988. Stream chemisty in the New Jersey pinelands:The infuence of prcipitation and watersbed disturbance. Water Resourshifing cultivated watershed at Muralipara. The findings indicatedRes, 24: 1091-1100.that plantation without undergrowth either leached more nutrientPetersen L. 2002. Analytical Methods Soil, Water, Plant Material and Fertil-than shifting cultivatedwatershed or shifing cultivated soil reizer. Denmark: Soil Resources Management and Analyical Services, Soiltained low nutrients. The result for Mg° and NO2-N was inResource Development Institute, Danida Kampax, pp. 17-20.agreement with that of Liu et al. (2000), who also found higherSchilling KE, Spooner J. 2006. Efects of Walershed-Scale Land Use Changevalues for these two parameters in agriculture watershed. Schillingon Stream Nitrate Concentrations. J Environ Qwal, 35: 2132-2145.and Spooner (2006) also reported similar reltionship for nitrateTripura P, Hanun A. 2003. Crisis and struggle of shifting culivator in theconcentration in stream water with the conversion of grassland intoCHTs. Dhaka: Women Volunteers Association, June 12-13.pp. 1-7. .rop lands. Comparison of plantation with natural vegetationUNDP-FAO. 1988. Land Resourcer Appraisal of Bangladesh for Agriculuralshowed that plantation enhanced pH, conductivity, TDS and theDevelopment, Repont No. 5, Land Resources Vol. 1 Computerized Landconcentration of Ca2+ and decreased Na* concentration in creekResources Inventory. Food and Agricutural Organization of the Unitedwater in the hilly watershed. This finding indicated that plantationNations. Rome, ltaly.utilized less cations in comparison to natural vegetation and in-Wikipedia.creased leaching of the nutient elements in creek or seepage water.hp://en.wikipedia or/wikiChitagong Hill Tracts#Demography,Overall results of the present study suggested that shifing cultiva-Accessed on 3 April 09.tion in CHTs had deteriorating efeet on water quality in bothYuretich RF, Crerar DA, Kinsman DI, Means J儿, Borsik MP. 1981. Hydro-creeks and seepages. For protecting environment and avoidinggeochermistry of the New Jersey Coastal Plain. 1. Major-Element Cycles infurther dcterioration in water quality, clearing of naturally regener-Precipitation and River Water. Chemical Geologr, 33: 1-21.ated myriad of plant species fllowing rainy season every yearZampella RA.1994. Characterization of Surface Water Quality along a Wa-need to be stopped. This management system of the vegetationZampers |中国煤化工s Buletin, 30: 605- 611.Dow CL. 2007. Relationshipwould help to enhance overall environmental condition in CHTs.offI IYHCN M H Grater quality in the MullicaAcknowledgementsRiver BasIn. J Am water Kesour AS, 43(3): 594 604.The authors thank USDA for funding this study and Regional Soil包Springer