Water Resources Management in an Arid Environment: The Case of Israel

March 2007Express Water Resources & Hydropower InformationVol. 28 ,No. 5文章编号:1006-0081( 2007 )05-0014- 14Water Resources M anagement in an AridEnvironment : The Case of IsraelZHOU Gang yanAbstract Israel is a semi- arid country , and a significant increase in population combined with sustainedeconomic growth now place enormous pressure on the country's scarce water resources. To date，the Israeligovernment , however , has been successful in addressing this problem. Rigorous enforcement of policy , insti-tutional and legal measures has been very effective , and in many aspects the country is a worldwide leader inwater resources management. This paper therefore reviews Israel's efforts in this area in order to identifylessons that may provide useful insights for developing countries- such as China 一whose future economicgrowth is also threatened by water scarcity.Keysords water resources management ; management framework ; organizational structure ; IsraelTable 1 Long Term Potential of Renewable1 Availability of Water ResourcesWater from Major Sources( Mm2/year )SourceReplenishable AmountThe Coastal Aquifer3201.1 Natural Water SourcesThe Mountain Aquifer370Total annual available fresh water in Israel is 1 800 Mm3Lake Kinneret700Additional Regionalwith per capita water quantity less than 300 m'( Jerusalem :Resourcesstate Comptroller，1990 ). In 2005 , approximately 45% of1 800fresh water was used for municipal( primarily residential ) con-Source : Ministry of National Infrastructure.( 1 ) Surface water - the Kinneret Basin. The Kinneretsumption ,and 50% for agriculture. About 80% of the waterpotential is in the north of the country and 20% in the south.Basin is in the northeast of Israel and covers2 730 km?. Thelake is fed mainly by the Jordan River , whose three tributariesNormally，water supply fluctuates from year to year in accor-contribute to an average inflow of about 650 Mm2/year. Thedance with the annual rainfall. Groundwater provides 55%一lake of Kinneret has a surface area of about 170 km2 and a total70% of the total water supply depending on the prevailing cli-volume of 4 300 Mm35 . The water level of the lake is regulatedmatic and hydrological conditions.at the Deganya Gates , maintaining an operational volume of 590Israel's main freshwater resources are stored in one lakeMm' , between 209 ~ 213 m. Of the annual water storage ,and two aquifers. Lake Kinneret( the Sea of Galilee) is theabout 380 Mm'( 20 m'/s )on average is pumped out of the wa-largest source of water in the country. The Mountain Aquifer ,tershed , while the remainder is used by consumers within thewhich is under the central north- south ( Carmel ) mountainwatershed.range , is the second main source of water. The third one is the(2 ) Underground water- the Mountain Aquifer. TheCoastal Aquifer that roughly parallels the coastal plain of theMountain Aquifer stretches for 150 km between Taninim in theMediterranean Sea. The lake and aquifers provide about 80% ofnorth and Beer Sheva in the south under the Judea and thethe country's fresh water. The remaining 20% is stored in oth-San中国煤化工are the Yarkon and theer smaller regional resources located in Upper Galile , WesternTani:CHCN M H Gulet to the MeliterancanGalilee, the Beit Shean Valley , the Jordan Valley , the DeadSea. More tnan 3uu aeep Dorenoles are used to pump about 340Sea Rift ，the Negev and the Arava. The long- term averageMm?/year , including 40 Mm3 of brackish water , maintaining aquantity of replenishable water from major water sourceswater table level at 16.5 m. Artificial recharge using excessamounts to about 1 800 Mm*/year , as shown in Table 1.supply from the Kinneret is practiced using single and dual pur-.Water Resources Management in an Arid Environment : The Case of Israelpose deep wells connected to the National Water C arrier.a countrywide basis ，using ground incinerators and aircraft.(3 ) Underground water- the Coastal Aquifer. TheControlled experiments conducted between 1960 and 1975Coastal Aquifer has a total area of about 1 800 km2 and extendspointed to a positive significant effect of seeding in increasingover some 120 km along the Mediterranean coast from Carmelrainfall. It is estimated that a significant increase of 10%inthe North to the Gaza Strip in the south. The safe yield ，15% in rainfall in the northern part of the country has beenwhich is fully utilized , is estimated at about 300 Mm*/year. Aachieved. Internal and external sources( e. g. the World Mete-certain level of seawater intrusion is allowed for optimal exorological Organization ) have cited the Israeli seeding programploitation of the aquifer. The interface was stabilized at aboutas one that has statstically been shown as a significant success ,1 500 m from the coast. Being a sand aquifer with a large hold-although the limited cloud occurrence in drought years limits theing capacity , the aquifer is used for short and long- term stor-benefits of cloud seeding when it is most needed.age ,allowing a normal supply in drought years. However , due(4 )Desalination. Israel has many small and medium sizeto frequent droughts and depletion of reserves endangering thedesalination plants in operation ，these being used to processsustainability of the aquifer , artificial recharge has to be intensi-brackish and seawater for domestic water supply in the Aravafied , while exploitation has to be carefully monitored.(4 ) Underground water - other aquifers. In addition toValley and the Gulf of Eilat. The largest of these facilities pro-the two major aquifers ，there are several smaller and localizedduces 44 000 m'/d of water from brackish groundwater andaquifers in various parts of the country. The most significant isseawater，thus meeting most of the drinking water requirementsthe Western Galilee Aquifer , having a safe yield of about 60of the town of Eilat. Reverse osmosis has been adopted as theMm2/year.leading technique for brackish and seawater desalination. Thefirst seawater desalination plant , with a capacity of 10 0001.2 Produced Water Resourcesm'/d was commissioned in 1997 and other modules of variousAfter exploiting nearly all of its available natural water re-capacities are planned along the Red Sea and the Mediterraneansources and promoting vigorous conservation programs，IsraelSea coast.has long made it a national mission to enlarge water supplies by .developing nonconventional water sources. Efforts to do so have1.3 Supply and Demandfocused on the fllowing :As of 1998 , annual water supply reached approximately( 1 ) Reclaimed wastewater efluents. Treated domestic ef-2100 Mm3 ,of which 75% was potable ( natural replenishedfluents , estimated at 400 Mm3 , form the largest potential watersurface and ground water and desalination ) and the remainingsource. Currently , about 250 Mm' of effluents , treated to vary-was marginal ( treated effluents , brackish water and runoff wa-ing degrees , are already utilized for irigation. The rest is dis-ter ) ,as shown in Table2. Proections to 2020 show the grow-charged into watercourses and the sea due to lack of treatmenting importance of treated effluents and desalination. Table 3and reuse facilities. At the end of 1999 , an estimated 300 Mm3shows a trend in which urban uses of water are growing in com-( 25% )of the total amount of water supplied for irigation wasparison with the other major category , irrigation , so that byin the form of reclaimed sewage effluent. This is expected to in-2020 they will each account for half of total water consumptioncrease to about 600 Mm' by the year 2020.in Israel.(2 ) Intercepted runoff and artificial recharge. AlthoughTable 2 Water Supply by Source 1998 ~ 2020 ( Mm2/year )surface runoff is sporadic , several regional and local schemeshave already been established. The schemes divert storm flowSourcefrom the rivers into surface reservoirs from which they areYearSurface GroundBrackishTreatedDesalination Totalwater watereffluentspumped into the supply system, or dispersed on spreading19986401 0501402602 1002010(est) 645.10501651002 430grounds and left to percolate into the underground aquifer2020( est) 6601 075 180_525200 2 680( mainly along the coastal plain ). At present，approximately 40Source : Israel Water Commission , 1998.Mm' are intercepted , out of a potential of 135 Mm'/year ofTable 3 Water Demand 1998 ~ - 2020( Mm?/year )stormwater. The main intercepting installations operating today中国煤化ITand rural useTotalare the Kfar Baruch , Dalia , Menashe , Shikma and Bsor rivers.fHCNMHG1 Effluents Total26013002100Other small schemes include hundreds of small runoff intercep-2005 est ) 980 75093801225 2 430tion projects amounting to about 130 Mm' .2010( est) 1 060 680749012452680(3) Man-made precipitation. Cloud seeding with silver io-2020(est)_ 1 330__ 60064013002680dide crystals has been practiced in Israel for the last 30 years on.15March 2007Express Water Resources & Hydropower InformationVol. 28 ,No. 5and hydrological supply matters. However , the past thirty yearsLegislative Framework for Water Re-has seen lttle fundamental change in Israel's statutory frame-sources Managementwork for regulation of water resources.Boxr 1 Basic principles of Israeli water legislation2.1 General Responsibilities and Principles(1) Water resources are public property and there is noThe core of Israel's water management legislation is theprivate orwmership of water resources ;( 2) Erery person has the right to use water for recognizedWater Law of 1959. The statute has been defined esentially asan" enabling act" that provides the basis for the government topurposes ;(3) The overall quantity of available water is scarce andcontrol water demand and charges for the water and related ser-vices it provides( Laster , 1976 ; Laster , 1980 ). Institutionally ,a prioritization process has to take place in order to providethe overall authority for execution of the act is granted to thesufficient water ，in quantity as well as in quality , to allMinister of Infrastructure ( previously Agriculture). A Water(4) Only a centralied allocation of water resources canCommissioner , as the head of Israel's Water Commission , whoreports to the Minister of Infrastructure , is responsible for im-ensure an optimal use of the limited water resources ;( 5 ) Consumers , through their representatires , need toplementation of the act. The law denies private and riparianrights to water and claims that water resources are a publichave a major input in the formation of the rules relating to theproperty subject to control by the State( Water Law , 1959 ).allocation of water quotas ;The 1959 water law had few provisions that focused on( 6 ) Attempts must be made to increase the water quanti-improving water quality. However , the situation changed inties arxilable for utilization by the consumers ;1971 as a comprehensive amendment on water quality expanded(7) Grvernment has the right to take appropriate actionsection 20A of the law( Tal, 1994 ). The expanded sectionto prevent the pollution of water resources .states that all water pollution , including all point and nonpointSource : Israel's Water Economy - Thinking of futuresources is prohibited.generations , 10 Aug 2002.According to the law , the Water Commissioner has the2.2 Water Law( 1959 ) and Amendmentsright to ssue a series of orders to reduce pollution problems.The Law makes it clear that all water resources belong toOne of them requires consumers to restore a water resource toits original state." Allowing Orders”are the functional equiva-the public and are to be alcated to the most urgent and efi-lent of discharge permits that require submission of sewagecient uses only. The law also states that all sources of water inplans.' The most draconian is the power granted the Commis-Israel are public property and that every person is entitled to usesioner to issue a' Stopping" Order , which literally turns off thewater , as long as that use does not cause the salination or deple-taps for anything but drinking water( Water Law , 1971 ).tion of the water resource. Therefore , national water planningThe authority to promulgate regulations on water quality ,should follow the principle of maximum water conservation ,Op-which had been under the charge of the Agricultural Ministry ,timum management of water resources and careful water alloca-was transferred in 1989 to the newly established Ministry oftion.Environment. Although there has been a steady stream of newThe absence of private ownership of water is further pro-regulations on pollution control promulgated by the Ministryvided for in Section 4 of the Law which states that" A person 's(Tal , 2002 ), the requirement for broad governmental agree-right in any land does not confer upon him a right in a waterment prior to adoption ,as well as the advisory role of a lethargicresource situated therein or crossing it or abutting thereon iWater Council dominated by agricultural interests have limitedContrary to legal concepts prevailing in some other jurisdic-this process.tions , land ownership in Israel does not include the right to theBesides the laws that control water quality , there are alsowater flowing through the land , beneath it or drawn from wellslaws that address other issues related to water resources. Thosesituated thereon. Water may be drawn from a well situated onlaws are: the Water Drilling Control Law , the Drainage andpers中国煤化工: with a water production liFlood Control Law , the Streams and Springs Authorities Law ,censeH solely for the landowner's:IYHCNMHGthe Local Authorities Sewage Law , the Public Health OrdinanceOwn curisuuptull.and the Licensing of Businesses Law. The myriad of legislation ,While the Water Law de facto expropriated any privateoriginating from the period of the British Mandate , constitutes aownership of water and water resources，the right to receive andpatchwork quilt , which covers the main environmental concernsuse water has been" Every person is entitled to receive and use16..Water Resources Management in an Arid Environment : The Case of Israelrexater , subject to the provisions of this Law" .that water is charged for separately and not as part of the mu-The relationship between the public ownership of waternicipal levies.and the private right of use is thus established. The right to wa-Industrial uses are subject to quotas based on water use ta-ter is not an absolute one but always applies for one of the pur-bles for the various industrial uses and annexed to the Regula-poses recognized by the Water Law. The purposes reognized bytions. There are specific provisions relating to small consumersthe Water Law for private right of water uses are domestic uses，(i.e. up to5 000~ 10 000 m3 per annum). The water is sup-agriculture，industry , handicraft , commerce , services and pub-plied through the Municipalities.lic services( Section 6).The water alocation system distinguishes between alca-While the water source itself cannot be subject to privatetions for planned and nonplanned communities. Water alloca-ownership , water production，pumping and supply equipmenttions for planned communities are based on the water needs de-may be , and is in many cases , privately owned. Thus , oncefined in the agricultural plan for the community. Water alloca-water is allocated the water is brought to the end user throughtions for non- planned communities are based on the type of agri-the private sector.cultural growth , the growth stage of the plants/ trees , and theEach and every water use requires a license. This includesgeographical location of the plants/ trees. The allocations arewell dilling , extraction ( production ), supplying ，consump-based on water needs in the various regions of the country andtion , subsurface recharging and water treatment. All licensesnormally water will not be allocated to regions where a particu-are annually issued and , at least de jure , the license granted forlar growth pattern is considered to be inefficient.one year does not confer upon the recipient the right for a li-In 1991 the Water Law was amended with a supplemen-cense in the following year although in fact , absent compellingtary chapter on water pollution. The new rules reflct the grow-reasons to the contrary，licenses are usually renewed. The li-ing importance that environmental protection takes in the use ofcense lists conditions that relate to quantities , qualities , proce-water resources. Article 20 of Chapter II of the law directly re-dures and arrangements for production and supply of water ,in-lates to prevention of water pollution. The Article states".: Acreasing the efficiency of water use , preventing pollution , etc.person shall refrain from any act which directly or indirectlyThe license may be revoked by the Water Commissioner if thecauses，or may cause，immediate or subsequent water pollu-conditions are not fufllel or if the water use endangers the wa-tion ;and it shall be immaterial whether or not the rwater re-ter source.source was polluted before the act ." The law sets fine levels ,esThe Law does not prescribe priorities in water allocationtablishes personal liability , empowers courts to impose cleanupthough it can be found in the Water Regulations( Water Use inexpenses on polluters or to undertake cleanups , and enables citi-a Rationing Area ), which prescribe that in Rationing Areaszens to initiate legal proceedings against offenders. The Minister( geographic areas in which the demand exceeds the supply ),of the Environment is authorized to protect water quality，towater alocation will be in the fllowing order :①Domestic Us-prevent water pollution , and to promulgate regulations on thesees ;②Industrial Uses ;③Agricultural Uses ;④Other Uses.issues. Section 1 of the Water Law lays down the underlyingSince most of the country has been declared as a Rationing Areaphilosophy of Israel's approach to its water resources by provid-the above order of priority is in fact the general order of prioritying that": The rwater resources of the State are public property ;for all water llocationo in Israel. The amount of the water all-they are subject to the control of the State and are destined forcated in each calendar year is fixed by the Water Commissionerthe requirements of its inhabitants and for the development offor each of the aforementioned categories. In principle , the allo-the country."cations are annually adjusted to reflect the changes in water2.3 Other Laws and Regulationsavailability and water needs.Water allocation to domestic users is through the Munici -( 1 ) Water Measurement Law ,1955. A fundamental pro-palities. The Municipality serves a dual function , as a consumervision in the law is the obligation to provide a measured amountof water vis-a-vis the bulk producer/supplier and as a waterof water to each consumer. Payment for water used is based onsupplier vis-a-vis all of the consumers within the municipalwate中国煤化工boundary. Before 1995 , domestic uses were subject to quota al-amissioner the right to pro-TCHC NMH G"locations. Since that year quota allocations for domestic waterhibit urc Supply dulu WiIpILIULL uf water if a water meter isuse were abolished and a strict differential pricing mechanismnot installed , and to install a water meter on the account oftook its place. The rules concerning municipal supplies requirewhasoever was obliged to install one.that each consumer must have an individual water meter，and( 2) Water Drilling( Control ) Law ,1955. The law aims to17.March 2007Express Water Resources & Hydropower InformationVol. 28 ,No. 5preserve subsurface water sources and prevent water pollution ，low 6.0 or above 10.0 to the sewerage system ,or with pH be-depletion or salination due to overexploitation. The law requireslow 6.0 or above 9.0 to a reservoir , with some exceptions forthe parties to obtain a license from the Water Commissioner forspecific cases.every dilling of a well or every change within a well. In the(8 )Prevention of Water Pllution( Usage of Sludge )Reg-case of well-drilling or changing a well without a license ，theulations ,2004. These regulations , prepared by the Ministry ofWater Comisioner may order the parties to stop the installa-the Environment in collaboration with the Ministry of Healthtion and restore the sites to their original state. A drilling li-and the Water Council，aim to prevent water pollution and en-cense is required even if the well is designed for personal con-vironmental degradation caused by improper disposal of sludgesumption only.from municipal sewage treatment plants. The regulations ,(3) Local Authorities ( Sewerage) Law , 1962. This lawwhich came into effect at the beginning of 2005 , requireclarifies the rights and duties of local authorities in the design ,wastewater treatment plants to stabilie and treat the sludgeconstruction and maintenance of sewerage systems. It requires athey generate to be suitable for agricultural use and avoid soillocal authority to maintain its sewerage system in proper condi-deterioration. The regulations establish maximum limits fortion. New sewerage systems must be approved by regional plan-heavy metal and pathogen concentrations and odor limits onning commissions and by health and environmental authorities.sludge designated for agricultural use , set recording and labora-The law also sets out sewerage system charges and fees.tory testing requirements , define specific uses for different class-( 4 ) Streams and Springs Authorities Law , 1965. This lawes of sludge( A and B ), set limitations on areas of sludge use ,empowers the Minister of the Environment , after consultationand prescribe requirements for warning signs，transport ancwith local authorities and the Minister of the Interior , to estab-storage. Requirements for class A sludge , which is virtuallylish an authority for a particular river，spring or any other waterpasteurized and highly stabilized, will come into force threeyears after the regulations come into force. Following are thesource. Those authorities take steps to protect and conserve thestream and its banks , to abate nuisances and prevent pollution.maximum permitted values for heavy metal concentrations i( 5 ) Prevention of Water Pollution ( Rinsing of Containerstreated sludge( in mg/ kg of dry material ) : cadmium 20，copper600 , nickel 90 ,lead 200 , zine 2 500 , mercury 5 , and chromi-for Spraying ) Regulations , 1991. The regulations prohibit any-um 400.one from emptying or rinsing chemical and/or biological sub-stances or their residues from sprayers，collection tanks or any3 Organizational Structure for Water Re-other installations into a water source , either directly or indi-sources Managementrectly. They set specific requirements on the siting , construc-tion and operation of rinsing installations. Specifications are setInstitutional arrangements for water resources managementforth on size , sealing , operation and maintenance of the rein-have much to do with the management and decision-making cul-stated ollction tanks and evaporation ponds.ture. In Israel , the agency that is fficially in charge of water(6 ) Prevention of Water Pollution( Spraying Near Waterpolicy- making is the Ministry of Infrastructure , although thisSources) Regulations ，1991. The regulations prohibit aerialresponsibility has historically rested largely with the Ministry ofspraying of biological and/ or chemical substances for agriculturalAgriculture , which continues to play an important role , alongpurposes near a water source , including Lake Kinneret( Sea ofwith other agencies such as the Ministries of Finance , Environ-Galilee) , the open sections of the National Water Carrier , thement , Health , Infrastructure , Interior , Foreign Affairs , DeUpper Jordan River and its tributaries , streams in the Kinneretfense , Trade and Industry , and Tourism Responsibility fordrainage basin and other water sources used for drinking water.managing water systems lies with the Water ( ommissioner ,The regulations set limits on aerial spraying according to wind .who sets the rules for water allocations. Mekorot is the compa-velocity and wind direction. Spraying from an airplane withinny that responsible for allocating available water to consumers.300 mof a water source , or within 200 m of certain specifiedConsumers are represented by a Water Council. The Primerivers or within 50 m of any other river is prohibited.Minister is also involved in national and security decisions di(7) Prevention of Water Pollution( pH Values of Industri-rectl中国煤化工lue to the extreme sensitivi-al Sewage ) Regulations , 2003. Promulgated in November 2003ty of:CCHCNMHGand coming into effect in May 2004 , the regulations aim to e-Deusiur-llakiig alu Inanagrnent in the arena of water re-liminate water pollution from corrosion generated by industrialsources are impacted by many factors which ultimately deter-sewage through establishing pH values. The regulations prohibitmine the allocation of those resources. Management is greatlyan industrial plant from discharging sewage with pH value be-influenced by special interest groups , which can impose pressure8..Water Resources Management in an Arid Environment : The Case of Israelon the government. For example，in principle the first prioritySource : Goldman ,M D. ,Managing the Water Systems-for water allocation is domestic consumption , then industry andthe Legal Framework in Israel ( Jerusalem : The Florsheimeronly after that , agriculture. However ，in practice , prioritiesInstitute for Policy Studies , 1996 ).tend to be , first ,agricultural consumption , then domestic con-Through its authority to establish rules for calculating wa-sumption and finally industrial consumption. Moreover ，theter fees , the Minister of Infrastructure sets water rates for theministries and entities that make and implement policy arelocal authorities , including Eilat , and the rates for water sup-themselves special interest groups , while other private and com-plied by Mekorot. Under the Drainage and Flood Preventionmunity interest groups also play an important role.Law( 1957 ), the Minister has the right to determine which ar-eas will be drainage areas and the need to establish a drainage3.1 The State Governmentauthority. Under the Local Authorities Law( Sewage )( 1962),Responsibilities of agencies at State level are briefly sum-the Minister's approval is required for any plan to establish a pu-marized below.rification and sewage removal facility outide the limits of the lo-( 1 )Ministry of Infrastructure. The Minister of Infrastruc-cal authority establishing this facility( Goldman , 1996 ).ture is in charge of implementing the Water Law( 1959 ), and(2 ) Ministry of Agriculture. The Ministry of Agricultureother basic water resource management legislation. In order torepresents the largest water consumergroup , namely the farm-implement these laws , the minister promulgates secondary leg-ers( Soffer , 2002 ). This representation typically involves aislation such as : rules on the width and area of protective stripsconflict of interest since water , which belongs to the entire pop-around water resources , approving orders by the Water Com-ulation , is alsoa tool used by the Ministry to satisfy the inter-missioner to reduce water diversion from a depleted water re-ests of the farmers. The Minister of Agriculture's top priority issource and determining norms for the usage of water ,its quanti-to supply farmers with largest possible amount of water at thety ,quality , price，and terms of supply.lowest possible price. The Ministry has historically held manyBy virtue of these powers , the Minister of Infrastructureof the responsibilities for water resource management that arehas established norms for the use of water in fish farms , gar-now under the control of the Ministry of Environment. In viewdens , industrial plants , fish stores , chicken coops and swim-of the political importance of the agricultural sector ，on behalfming pools. The minister regulates the supply and demand ofof that it is an advocate ,it continues to play a central role inwater in a certain area and sets maximum water consumptionkey decisions such as the intersectoral allocation of water andlevels and priorities. It empowers corporations to act as waterother water management and policy issues.authorities to plan , establish and operate water factories ,and is(3) Ministry of Finance. The Ministry of Finance is re-authorized to take measures against water authorities that do notsponsible for the overall budget and for disbursement to the vari-carry out their functions. The minister can even appoint waterous entities involved in water resource management. For years ,institutions such as the Committee for Water Planning and Con-representatives of this ministry have been opposing the estab-sumer Representation.lishment of desalination facilities and instead support a policy ofBor 2 The Water Commissionerraising water prices for farmers as a means of saving water andOperating within the Ministry of Infrastructure is the of-making effective use thereof( Zaslavsky ,2001 ).fice of the Water Commissioner , who is responsible for design-(4) Ministry of Environment. The Ministry of Environ-ing and implementing the policies of the Minister of Infras-ment is responsible for preventing water pollution. The ministrytructure and responding to all events，including conflicts andis authorized to promulgate regulations , prohibitions and restric-disputes that are related to water management and allocation.tions on the location and establishment of polluting facilities ;The mandate of the Water Commissioner is comprehensive ,use of certain materials or production process methods，includ-namely management of the nation 's water resources to ensure aing agricultural cultivation , fertilization and spraying ; produc-reliable water supply to all of Israel's residents. for their do-tion ; importation ; distribution and marketing of materials andmestic , industrial , agricultural and other uses. The Waterproducts ; regulation of vehicular traffic over and near water re-Commissioner is therefore responsible for formulating eatersour中国煤化工’of water required for var-policies，preventing rwater pollution , regulating streams andOus.floodwater and sewage. By:TH.CNMHGflood prevention，utilizing overflow water ，exploiting newvirtue-or uus dutluluy，uite Ivisier of the Environment hasrexater sources ,and promoting efficient rwater use. In particu-promulgated regulations that almost completely prohibit the uselar，rwater in Israel may only be extracted under a license is-of cesspools and septic tanks , regulations that limit the use ofsued by the Commissioner .salt in factory freshening processes , and regulations which pro-March 2007Express Water Resources & Hydropower InformationVol. 28 ,No. 5hibit , among other things , spraying and dumping and rinsingministry can obligate local authorities to install a sewerage sys-methods in spraying facilties which are liable to cause penetra-tem. Under the Water Law( 1959 ), the Minister of Agriculturetion of the spraying materials into a water source. Under themust consult with the Minister of the Interior and obtain his ap-Streams and Springs Authorities Law , 1965 , the minister is au-proval for determining rates for water supplied to the local au-thorized to establish stream authorities and to determine theirthorities and for water produced by the local authority , for anyfunctions and responsibilities. Under the Local Authorities Lawagreement to relocate a water factory to which a local authority( Sewage), 1962 , activities related to sewage ( maintenance ofis party and to appoint a local authority or association of munici-the system or the slling of sewage water by the local authority )palities as a regional water authority. Under the Drainage andmust be performed such that they satisfy the health authority ,Flood Prevention Lawk 1957 ), the Minister of the Interior mustby a person appointed by the Minister of the Environmentbe consulted before the Minister of Health can determine the( Goldman , 1996 ).extent of the local authorities' representation in a drainage au-(5 ) Ministry of Health. The Ministry of Health is inthority，and all matters pertaining to drainage taxes.charge of implementing the National Health Ordinancd 1940 ).The Minister of the Interior is in charge of implementingTo implement this law，the minister is authorized to promulgatethe Regulation of Public Bathing Places Law( 1964 ), underregulations that define the sanitary quality of potable water ,de-which he determines the areas at the beach , rivers and lakestermine the sanitary conditions of water sources designated aswhere swimming is permitted. He is also responsible for rul-potable water sources , and regulate the sanitary aspects of plan-ings , which determine the methods of maintaining sanitationning，installation and operation of potable water systems. Tconditions in authorized bathing areas.handle the sanitary quality of water , the Minister of Health ap-( 7) Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Ministry of Defense.points one of his employees as a”health authority"( as in theThe Ministry of Foreign Affairs is involved in the politial andcase of the Ministry of the Environment ). The ministry maysecurity aspects of Israel's water policy vis di-vis neighboring andinstruct the holder of a water source to take the measures re-remote countries. The Ministry of Defense , as a consumer andquired to prevent a health hazard or to improve the quality ofas a party to the protection of the country's water facilities andthe water.the water that reaches Israel from neighboring countries , has aThe Ministry has created sewage and effluent water regula-vested interest in water- related activities occurring outside itstions that require large sewage producers ( public authorities orborders.factories) to treat sewage in a purification facilty ，s0 that it3.2 Mekorot Water Supply Companyreaches the quality level prescribed by the regulations. TheMinister of Health may , in conjunction with the Minister of A-Mekorot is Isral's national water company. Founded ingriculture , determine rules for the purification of sewage water1937 , its objective was to develop the country's water supplydesignated for irigation or other economic purposes. Thesesystems. Mekorot controls the water system nationwide accord-rules prohibit the use of drainage water without a permit froming to the Water Law( 1959 ). As a state- owned company ，the minister. This permit will not be granted unless it has beenMekorot operates independently under the supervision of theproven that the water has been suficiently purified. The Min-Govermment Companies Authority but is afiliated to the Min-istry has promulgated regulations prohibiting irigation of agri-istry of Infrastructure and the Ministry of Finance ,and suppliescultural crops by water that has not been treated in a purifica-water in bulk to municipalities , farmers , and industry.tion system approved by the Ministry of Health s ditrict sanita-The company currently provides 65% of the water con-tion engineer. Efluent water is permitted for use only for thosesumed in Israel and serves 4 800 customers , which include mu-agricultural crops not designated for human consumption( suchnicipalities, local councils , moshavim , kibbutzim and regionalas cotton ) or for crops which undergo industrial processes whichassociations. In 1998 , the company supplied 1 501.9 Mm3 ofprevent transmission of microorganisms( such as grains and sug-water. Of that amount , 794.0 Mm' went to the agriculturear beet ). Pursuant to the Local Authorities Law ( Sewage ),sector, 89.8 Mm3 to industry , 618.1 Mm3 to domestic con1962 ,a plan for the establishment of a sewage system requiressum中国煤化工m”was ntrduced into thethe approval of the Minister of Health( Goldman , 1996 ).biolo:HHC NMHG( 6 ) Ministry of Interior. The Ministry of the Interior is inni tnutau tcluls ,IvIchuivL aucounts for 80% of the watercharge of the local authorities. By controlling their budgets , theindustry's activity in Israel. Costs are relatively high since itministry supervises the local authorities' water and sewage activ-transmits water over long distances and pumps water to highities. Under the Local Authorities Law( Sewage x 1962 ), theplaces. Most other associations and private manufacturers sup-.20.Water Resources Management in an Arid Environment : The Case of Israelply local water demand at lower costs. In the past ，all ofsize intensifies the centralization of water resource managementMekorot's expenses were passed on to its consumers and thewhich continues to augment its financial strength.government. Since 1993 , water prices are no longer controlledAlthough there are many good examples of how Mekorotby Mekorot but are determined by the government. This costhas worked in partnership with others to improve water man-arrangement has changed the nature of the company's activitiesagement efficiency( see Box 3 ),it is feared that the water sys-and forced it to become more business- oriented. The arrange-tem is developing according to Mekorot's needs，which is notment has resulted in an improvement in the efficiency of its en-necessarily compatible with the goal of the country in terms ofergy use ,a significant increase in investments in water facili-allocating water resources eficiently and fairly. Mekorot's con-ties ,and renovation of existing equipment. The company hastinuing expansion in new directions in water resources , such asalso been forced to attempt to enter new fields in order to ex-desalination , will increase the monopoly's strength and intensifypand and diversify its business.its power. This is liable to draw the national economy into ex-Baxr 3: Partnership with Mekorot : The Hefer Valleycessive expenses and greatly increase the price of water to theWater Users Associationconsumer. In 1997，the Arlozorov Committee for ExaminationThe Afikey Emek Hefer Association is a woluntary agri-of Water Resources Management suggested encouraging othercultural cooperative , which brings together member farms inprivate entities and local authorities to enter the field of desali-the Hefer Valley. Established in 1984 , it consists of 26 mem-nation.ber settlements of kibbutz 's and Moshaus. The Association is an3.3 Other Water-Related Entitiesindependent unit and represents the Hefer Valley RegionalCouncil in eater and sewage issues , and is in charge of main-( 1 )Water Asociations and Private Producers. Water sup-taining water sources in the valley. The Associatio undertakesplied by private parties , primarily for agricultural use in theoperations to ensure water supply sources for all vwulley users in .northern part of the country，is managed by regional water as-terms of research，physical maintenance，economics and legalsociations. In most cases the associations belong to consumerssues .To achieve this ，its water supply system is jointlywho are farmers in the regions. These ass ociations may eitherorwned and managed with Mekorot whose role is to operate candact independently or jointly with Mekorot in supplying and allo-maintain the system . Expenditures and inrestments are jointlycating water resources. Their financial ability is limited andshared betueen the Association and Mekorot. Senior manage-they need assistance to establish their water supply facilties. Iment of the company participate in regular policy meetingsparticular ,they do not have access to the guarantee or creditwith the Association , and at the operational level there is com-terms that Mekorot was granted in the past( Arlozorov ,1997 ).tinuous interaction betveen the Association and staff of the(2) Local Authorities. These are responsible for the waterMekorot 's Central District Dirvision. A characteristic of this ar-and sewage services within their jurisdiction under the Munici-rangement is the inolvement of he farmers themselves as wellpalities Ordinance，ensuring that residents in their jurisdictionas advisory services from relewant gouernment agencies in waterpay the water fee.management issues in the Valley .(3) The Water Council. The Water Council is a nationalThe partnership betveen Mekorot and the Association isentity appointed by the government to advise the Minister of In-widely regarded as being highly scssful , as ilustrated byfrastructure on a wide range of matters pertaining to water poli-the increased efficiency of uater use that has been realised incy. minister must consult with the council before promulgatingrecent years. Financial and technical support provided bysecondary legislation, and specifically with regard to tariffs.Mekorot for sewage treatment , water reclamation , and moreThe Council has about 30 members , including representativesefficient irrigation technologies have been a model that the As-from the Ministry of Agriculture , the W ater Commissioner andsociation is keen to cdemonstrate to others.other government representatives ，consumers , suppliers ，andSource : Shaul Manor and Zeev Hagali , Survey on Irri-producers , as well as a representative of the World Zionist Fed-gation Modernization , FAO , December 2002.eration. The Council appoints one committee to discuss mattersHowever , Mekorot is still the only entity with significantrela中国煤化工another one for other waterfinancial and operational capability in the field of water re-uses:IHC NMHGsources , and it remains a monopoly with too much power. The(4 11110 1 luuug ( Jl1LtThis is appointed by thewater associations and private producers are small businessesMinister of Agriculture and has 11 members. Its job is to exam-with limited financial capability. Mekorot remains the leader inine plans for water facilities.the water sector , and it operates without proper supervision. Its( 5 ) The Consumer Representative. At the local level , this21.March 2007Express Water Resources & Hydropower InformationVol. 28 ,No. 5includes representatives from local authorities , suppliers and a-the principles of water resources management.gricultural and industrial organizations( Goldman , 1996 ).( 6) The National Drainage Council. This Council provides4 Strategies for Water Resources Manage-advice on matters pertaining to the implementation of thement :Technical ApproachesDrainage Law. The council members include the Water Com-Water resources strategies continue to evolve in Israel ,missioner , 8 government representatives and 12 members ap-with various technical options being developed or considered.pointed by the minister , 8 of whom represent agricultural orga-nizations. Each drainage area has a drainage authority in whichThese include utilization of recovered water , desalination , im-portation of water , construction of a national carrier , agricultur-the majority of members are representatives from the local au-al and industrial efficiency improvements , and urban water usethorities in that drainage area , the remainder being governmentstandards.officials who operate with the approval of the Minister of Agri-culture( Goldman , 1996 ).4.1 Extensive Utilization of Recovered Water(7 ) Lakes and Streams Authorities. These are composedRegulations have been initiated in order to improve theof the following groups of members. The first group consists ofquality of sewage treatment plants and their effluents to maxi-government officials who are representatives of the local authori-mize water reuse potential , and to minimize health and environ-ties within the area of the Lakes and Streams Authority ;Themental risk. A particularly important objective is to replacesecond group includes representatives from the stream:( the Na-fresh water supplies currently used for irrigation purposes byture Preservation Authority ),and the third group is the repre-treated wastewater effluents. By 2003， Israel was re- usingsentatives of property owners whose land borders on the stream.65% of its waste water ,and almost 50% of the total irrigationThe authorities have various responsibilities. First , they regu-sector is now using treated sewage efluents( Saul ,2005 ).late water utilization in the stream , maintain an environmentallyhealthy water level and ensure regular drainage. Second ，they4.2 Desalinationdetermine the course of the stream , remove hazards that mayTo augment its existing relatively small scale desalinationpollute the stream , and preserve the natural landscape of theplants,and as a result of the recent dry spells and growing waterstream and its banks. Third , they regulate water distribution a-demand , the government has decided to initiate and accelerate tlmong interested parties , regulate the ways to utilize the stream，construction of Reverse Osnosis Sea Water Desalination Plantsand rehabilitate the stream for recreation and vacation purposes.( ROSWDP ), which will add about 10% to the total fresh waterThere are currently two Lakes and Streams Authorities - theavailability of the country in 2005/2006. This fllows a period ofYarkon River Authority established in 1988 and the Kishonintensive research and significant cost reductions of RC )SWDP basedRiver authority established in 1994( Goldman , 1996 ).mainly on local changes in the design of these plants. This decision(8) Sea of Galilee Administration. This fulills an impor-also includes the completion of nationwide treatment and re-use of alltant function in terms of protecting the water quality in the lakeof its treated waste water( tertiary and secondary treatment )and al-and preventing water pollution in the drainage area. However ，locating these new sources of water to the farmers in exchange forits status is not defined by law. In fact ,it is a type of coordina-their fresh water alcations.tion committee that connects various official entities, such asthe Water Commission , the drainage authorities , the Ministry4.3 Importing Waterof the Interior , and the Israel Lands Administration.Turkey is considered Israel s best source of imported water( 9 ) Farmers. Farmers contrlled water resources duringfrom the mouth of the Manavgat River in southern Turkey tothe country's early years. The Minister of Agriculture was , tra-the Ashkelon Port , 600 km away. Water may be transferredditionally ,a kibbutz member or a member of the moshav move-using a submerged pipeline , super tankers or floating bags. Thement. The Water Commissioner originated from the agriculturalManavgat River has an average flow of 140 m'/s ,of which 60settlement , and there were many kibbutz and moshav membersm?/s are assumed to be available for export( 15% of the unusedon the Knesset Water Committee. In practice , the situation iswat中国煤化工Cost ). The we of supernot very different now , with farmers continuing to play a domi-tank:CYHCNMHG)0 tons, is currently beingnant role in the allocation of water resources. However ,as aconsiacioa. rrcy-woulu uiivau intear Ashkelon Port ,on an ex-consequence of arid years and over-use of reservoirs , concernisting floating Single Buoy Mooring( SBM ) stationed 3. 25 kmabout current and anticipated water shortage has become a ma-from the coast. The existing facilities , including the SBM , thejor national issue and there has been strong pressure to changefloating hose and the submerged pipes connecting the SBM to.Water Resources Management in an Arid Environment : The Case of Israelthe coast，would have to be cleaned for water use.output has increased twelre fold .The cost per cubic meter is estimated at about $0. 80 toSource : www. jewishvirtuallibrary. org/ sourcel Histo-$ 1.00 for supertanker shipment , versus between $0. 60 andry/ scarcity. html.$ 1.25 for seawater desalination. However , unloading and con-(2) Urban Sector. The urban sector has adopted severalveyance facilities ( seasonal storage , pumping station , inlandmeasures to improve water use efficiency. Those measures in-transmission conduit，SBM，marine unloading pumping stationclude : water metering , pipe replacement , and electronic moni-and the submerged pipe ) would add a further 50% to this cost.toring and retrofitting campaigns. Double- volume toilet flushingThe excessive cost , reliability and the doubt about uninterrupt-basins ,and recently redesigned standards for taps and showers ,ed supply and long- term availability ，render importation a lesswere the legally enforceable basis for a 25- year program. Thedesirable option for solving Israel's water deficit.effectiveness of this can be seen from the fact that per capita ur-ban water consumption in Israel has hardly changed in the past4.4 National Carrier40 years despite an increase of 300% in GDP during that peri-As part of the nationwide network for the available surfacerd.and ground water resources ,a national carrier was completed totransfer the water surpluses from the relatively water abundant5 Water Rights , Economic Instruments andnorth to the water scarce center and south. This investment en-Financingables the authorities to maintain a balanced national pumpingpattern，monitoring hydro geological conditions at all times and5.1Water Rights and Allocationthroughout the country. Desalination of brackish and sea water(1 ) Water rights. Soon after the establishment of thehave become the main means of adding water quantities whenState of Israel in 1948 , the issue of water became a top priori-natural supplies and re-use fail to meet the growing demand fory. Urgency was seen not only in planning and carrying out pro-water.jects and securing funds , but also in consolidating a legal frame-4.5Demand Management : Technical Aspectswork that would regulate all the elements pertinent to the mat-( 1 ) Agricultural and Industrial Production Sector. Iriga-ter of water supply. .tion water allocations are based on norms developed by the agri-Accordingly , in 1959 the comprehensive Water Law wascultural research community together with the farmers. Thepassed in the Knesset( the Israeli Parliament ). The Water Lawnorms aim to maximize economic gains by introducing new irri -states that all sources of water in the state are public property，gation technologies , changing cropping patterns , and movingsubject to the control of the state and dedicated to the needs ofaway from crops such as grains ,where the product value per u-its inhabitants and the development of the country. Waternit of water is relatively low.sources are defined to include all internal sources of water , in-A similar policy was adopted by the industrial sector in or-cluding springs , streams , rivers , lakes and other current accu-der to reduce per unit water usage as well as pollution. After amulations of water , above the ground or underground , includingsurvey is conducted , an implementation policy is formed whichdrainage water and sewage. Each person is entitled to obtainrequires the establishment of a special fund ,a nationwide pro-water and to use it , subject to the provisions of the Law.gram for each industry , and an allocation system that aims toThe priority for water alocation is first for domestic useimprove the productivity per unit of water that is used.and then to commerce , industry and agriculture. Supervision ofBox 4 Irrigation Water Managementall matters related to water is managed by the Water Commis-Israel is a world leader in the area of irrigation uatersioner who is responsible for carrying out a comprehensive andmanagement in arid environments. Based upon the greater a-balanced policy of water production and supply at the nationalgricultural efficiency of drip irrigation and micro- sprinklinglevel. The Water Law prohibits the drilling of wells without acompared with furrw irrigation in Israel ( 90% compxredlicense fromthe Water Comissioner. It has the power to setwith 64% ) , the country has orver time carried a major techno-quantity and quality standards for those who have the right tological switch in irrigation practices . The improred technolo-ecei中国煤化工”to use water in excess ofgies , combined with changes in cropping patterns cand movingthe:JYH.CNMHGWater Comisioner ,evento higher value crops，hare had dramatic results. Thus theif they lave ncu UwII well. vvalcl meters at the well are readaverage requirement for uater per unit of land has been re-and controlled by staff of the water Commissioner 's office.'duced from 8 700 m3/ha in 1975 to 5 500 m'/ha today.ter pollution is forbidden and punishable by fine or imprison-With water consumption remaining the same，agriculturalment.March 2007Express Water Resources & Hydropower InformationVol. 28 ,No. 5The Law stipulates the basic rules for state control of watermissioner decided on a reduction in the water quotas for agricul-charges , and provides for the establishment of a Water Chargesture( 1998 was set as the basic year for the cut )by a 40% av-Adjustment Fund to reduce differences in water charges in vari-erage and in the years 2000 ~ 2002 an average reduction of 50%ous parts of the country. The Water Metering Law forbids thewas decided on.supply and abstraction of water without measurement.Establishing quotas for industrial plants that use more than( 2 ) Water alcationlsos and permits. It was reognized earli-5 000 m3of water a year is done based on the quantitieser on that water , as a resource in a short supply , required a le-( norms" ) of water consumption , according to the type ofgal framework and the prescribing of engineering , economic andproduct and scope of production. The multiplication of theadministrative actions in order to attain its efficient utilization ,aforesaid norms by production scope constitutes the basis for wa-in accordance with the goals set by the State.ter alocations in the plant. A plant whose wastewater disposalMost regions in the country were declared a“rationing re-system does not meet the required criteria does not receive a wa-jions" , which means that water consumption was limited to ater consumption license.fixed amount. Therefore , norms were established for agricul-The amount of water alcated to domestic consumption in-tural consumption , domestic consumption and industrial concludes water for household needs , gardening，auxiliary farms ,sumption.services and public utilities , trades , commerce , etc. within theSince the promulgation of the Water Law ,an annual waterdomainof the local authority ,or in other words ，the overallproduction and supply license is issued to every producer andshared consumption of the local authority ，excluding separatesupplier. The production license is a fundamental document re-allocations for industrial and agricultural needs within its do-flecting the Water Commissioner's provisions regarding themain. .amounts of water allowed for production , supply or consump-In recent years the amount of water allocated to local authori-tion , conditions of production , and the restrictions to which it isties has not been fixed. Every local authority is entitled to use thesubject. The first priority is given however to municipal and do-amount it requires for various purposes. However , the amount ofmestic supply.water the local authorities sell to consumers within its boundariesWater allocation for private agriculture began with the en-should not be more than 12% of the total available water in the re-actment of the Water Law. The initial stage was the recognitiongions. If the consumption difference is higher , the local authority isof water usage rights( not water rights ). The allocation of wa-given a monetary fine(' special payment" ).ter rights was done by photographing the farmers' areas , and5.2 Fees and Pricesmeasuring the quantity of water consumed in certain period.After that , usage normns were established for different crops ,Mekorot provides two thirds of the water supply in Israel.and water use quotas were calculated by multiplying the normsThe prices the company is entitled to charge are set by the Min-by the areas of crop cultivated.istries of Infrastructure and Finance, as approved by theWater alocation for planned settlements was determined byKnesset's Finance Committee( The Israel Water Conmission ,the types of soil and means of water production as well as the2002). Prices are updated from time to time acording tomaximum size of the setlement measured in terms of the num-changes in the consumer price index , electricity rates and theber of units. The maximum water alocation for each settlementaverage wage index.' The rates are categorized according to use :was obtained by multiplying the number of planned farm unitsprimarily , domestic ,industry and agriculture. While some sub-by the water quota per unit.sidization is employed , prices are esentially based on the costsSince 1986 the Water Commission has been following aof supply. .policy of water quota cutbacks. A cutback was made in most(1 )Water casts. The unit cost of water in Israel has in-parts of the country，due to the reduction in pumping from thecreased sharply over the last 45 years , as might be expected in acoastal aquifer ( Pleistocene aquifer ), which was undergoing awater short country. In 1960 , water was primarily supplied byrehabilitation process. An important change initiated in 1993local sources , at relatively low cost. The advent of the nationalwas the flexibility in the annual allocation date. In January ,carri中国煤化工hevry investmnent in water70% of the overall allocation is determined for each agriculturepump:MHCNMHG'_ns and treatment plants ,sector consumer , with the remainder of the allocation deter-whiclT ultcascu unt wsis wibiuclably in the early years of thatmined during the winter according to the hydrological situation ,project. Nevertheless despite having to access ever more expen-but no later than April 1st of the same year. In 1999 ,after se-sive sources , unit costs between 1970 and 2001 did not increasevere depletion of the country 's water resources ,the Water Com-greatly. This can be explained in part by greater utilization of.Water Resources Management in an Arid Environment : The Case of Israelthe new capacity and improved operational efficiency on the partlows:①$0.28/m3 up to 50% of their entitlement ;②of the main supplier , Mekorot.$0.33/m3 for the next 30%③$0. 43/m3 for the rest.For unit costs of raw water supply( at the city gate ) in(4) Extraction levies. As from 1999 all those extractingUSD equivalent( constant 2002 prices) , see Table 4.water from any source have been charged with an extractionTable 4 Unit Cost of Raw Water Suppl( USD )levy payment. Current rates for agriculture are $0. 19/m3YearCost/m3from underground sources and $ 0.06 from surface water.19600.12( Households and manufacturing pay between $0. 18197020010.22/m3 depending on the source ). The actual rates are updat-Source : Yoav Kislev，The Water Economy of Israel , 2006.ed from time to time. The obligation for payment of the extrac-The cost-plus method previously used by Mekorot to calcu-tion levy falls on the actual extractor , who is entitled to collectlate water prices was replaced in 1994 with a business orientedfrom his consumers their share of the extraction levy as well asmethod in which the government now determines recoverableother water supply costs, in accordance with the quantity offixed and variable costs. A substantial increase in water priceswater supplied to them. If the water extractor does not pay thewas approved by the government , and this , coupled with im-extraction levy，the Water Commissioner has the right to can-proved performance( saving in energy cost and other variablecel , to suspend or to change the extraction license of that ex-and fixed costs ) resulted in a significant reduction in thetractor for that water source.government's subsidy from 40% to 20% over the following fourThe extraction levy is not based upon the immediate cost ofyears. It has remained at roughly this level of support eversupply，but rather reflects the scarcity value of water. This is asince. However , water supplied to the urban and the industrialunique and extremely important aspect of Israel's water policysectors incurs the full cost ，while water supplied to agriculture( Kislev ,2006 ).continues to be subsidized.At the same time , in order to improve water use efficien-( 2 ) Agricultural use : reclaimed water. With regard to re-cy ,the law provides a system of grants to be made to privateclaimed water , the government supports the agricultural sectorextractors from the State budget , for the production and devel-by providing subsidies for initial capital investments approved byopment of inferior quality water sources to be converted intothe Investment Committee，which is composed of representa-higher quality supplies. This is designed to permit the continuedtives from the Ministries of Agriculture , Treasury , Health , En-existence of private water extractors, who are a positive com-vironment , and the water authorities. The committee evaluatespetitive factor in the water economy , particularly where theirproposed projects based on technical , economic and managerialoperations return hitherto low quality water to drinking watercriteria. The cost difference between the production price andstandards.the price at which the reclaimed water is sold is covered by a(5 ) Municipal and industrial consumption. Water tariffsgovernment subsidy.and allocations are applied to groups of consumers , namely ,The cost of supplying one cubic meter of reclaimned watertowns , local councils , and water user associations. Water pricesfrom the outlet of the treatment plant to the farmer's field isare fixed by a parliamentary committee based on recommenda-currently estimated at about $ 0.21/m'. This includes : 70%tions made by the Ministry of Finance and the Water Commis-capital recovery cost and 30% operational costs. Operationalsion. Increasing block rates are used to discourage excessivecost includes: 35% for maintenance of lines ，reservoirs andconsumption while allowing basic needs to be met. Currently ，pump stations , 40% for energy , and 25% for other operatingprices( including a sewage charge ) for most households ，ascosts and management.passed on by the municipal authority concerned ,are as follows :Farmers are charged between $0.13~ 0. 19/m3 for re-①First 8 m3 per month: $0. 80/m3 ;②Next 7 m3 perclaimed water , depending on quality. The balance is covered bymonth: $0. 95/m3 ;③Additional Amounts: $ 1.51/m3 ;④the government as a subsidy. The payment is based on the actu-Minimum charge per month : $ 3.50. In addition , the averageal number of cubic meters of reclaimed water used by the farm-charge for manufacturing uses is $ 0. 56/m’.ers.5.3中国煤化工(3 )Agricultural use : fresh water. With regard to fresh a-[HCNMHGgricultural water ，the tariff schedule is designed to discourageT ueguveumclll，uinuugu unc relevant ministries , providesfarmers from using their complete entitlement. For example ,grants and low- interest loans for improving and expanding waterthe amount they pay to the main supplier , Mekorot , increasessupply and wastewater treatment plants. Investment capital isacording to the amount purchased , current rates being as fol-distributed through the Water Networks Rehabilitation Fund ,25 .March 2007Express Water Resources & Hydropower InformationVol. 28 ,No. 5the National Sewage Program , the Irrigation Systems Improve-transport costs. This creates a further distortion , leading toment Fund，and the Wastewater Renovation and Reuse Pro-overuse of water at the destinations far from the sources. Thegram.traditional justification has been on grounds of subsidizing popu-Most significant of all , however , is the subsidization of ir-lation dispersal to distant areas. Leaving aside a discussion ofrigation water by the Ministry of Agriculture , which encourageswhether the government should be involved in population dis-wasteful use. Furthermore , many farmers also receive subsidiespersal at all, water subsidization is an inferior method forto cover this underpriced water and receive cash compensationachieving this result. Simply subsidizing directly the relocationwhen their water allotment is reduced. For fresh water farmersof people and capital to peripheral areas of the country would ac-pay on average $0.25/m3 to Mekorot. This is $0.20 lesscomplish the same goal without encouraging over- consumptionthan the price paid by urban users. Since the latter cover fullof water.costs of supply , the figure of $0. 20/m2 can therefore be seenFinally ,it is important to make a distinction between sub-as a rough indication of the amount of subsidy.sidization in purely financial terms and in real economic terms.Water subsidy has been one of the most expensive items inIt appears that in Israel ，since use of natural sources and water-Israel's state budget. With the expectation of cutting subsidiesreuse as well as demandside options appear to be approachingfor public transportation , water subsidies will be the main bud-their limit , there is lttle alternative to desalination as the futuregetary subsidy in Israel. For example ,in 2000 NIS 298 millionsource of incremental supply. In other words, the unit cost of( approximately $ 73 million ) was allocated for direct waterdesalination is the appropriate measure of the true economicsubsidization ，which is about 27% of the entire water system( marginal ) cost of water in the country. Given current technol-governmental budget.ogy ,the cost per cubic meter of this option is somewhere boAnother form of subsidy involves seasonal water use. It istween 0. 60 and 1.25 ，including inorporation of desalinationmore expensive to pump water in summer months , yet there iswater into the national grid. Assuming the lower of these costno surcharge for this water to force users to compensate for theestimates , with current price paid to Mekorot by farmers beingcost( There was a surcharge added to summer consumption dur-$ 0.25/ m3 the subsidy amounts to about $ 0.35/ m3 for rriga-ing 1978 ~ 1988 ,but it was dropped , apparently due to politicaltion water use. Using a similar calculation，even urban uses arepressure from farmers ).subsidized: the price municipalities pay to Mekorot isUnder-pricing of pumping and distribution services provid-$0. 45/m3 , the subsidy therefore being $ 0.15/m3 if the low-ed by Mekorot is another type of subidy. As noted above , gov-cost estimate for desalination is used as the benchmark for deter-ernment financial support to the company , albeit declining , re-mining subsidy.mains significant.Until recently a major source of distortion in the water5.4 Water Tradingmarket was the water equalization fund. The idea was to penal-The government has recently approved a change in the wa-ize those who had access to cheap water sources( such as farm-ter code enabling holders of water allocations to sell their perma-ers with their own wells ) and use the proceeds to compensatenent or temporary allocations to others by transferring the actualthose who use more expensive water sources. The rationale oftransaction via the national water carrier , thus opening the sec-such fund was fairness. The result , however , was to furthertor for a market-like operation. This is similar to the policy thatdistort water alocation. The equalization fund payments elimi-the Water Commissioner's office has been implementing fornated the incentive to seek and exploit cheaper water sources. Ityears in trading fresh water with treated sewage effluents. Thissubsidized the uses of the most expensive sources of water. Themarket concept could well serve and even promote peaceful ex-operation of the equalization fund lasted for decades , but was fi-changes of water between the countries of the Middle East.nally eliminated in Israel in 1999 as part of the ArrangementsWater in Israel is used within a system of allocations( an-Law( Hok Hahesderim ) , and was replaced by a set of differen-nual or multi annual ) while in most other countries in the regiontial tariffs for drawing water from the various sources of water.it is user rights that determine the demand. In many regions ,aSimilarly , there has been a tendency in Israel to absorbpers中国煤化工it)has the right to the wa-transport differences for water consumption in different parts ofter|:1HCNMH GIn other regions variousthe country ，especially for water pumped from the Sea ofquota systcuus aldalc uic aulults of water on an annual ,Galilee and transported through the national water carriermonthly , weekly , daily , or even hourly basis. Old established( Hamovil Ha'artzi). The idea is that it is considered unfair tousers usually have the rights to continue to use the resource ,ask farmers far from the water sources to pay their own waterwhen shortages prevail.26..Water Resources Management in an Arid Environment : The Case of IsraelIn Israel it has been shown that the eficiency of water re-of Galilee and the underground aquifers. If two or more corpo-source allocation and use can be subsantially improved throughrations would have access to any of these sources , each wouldthe increased use of price and trading mechanisms. Trading wa-have motivation to over- pump and under- conserve. The over-ter on the margin or using a system in which urban/ industrialconsumption urge would be transferred to them , replacing farm-demand is met by supply from farmers slling their quotas re-ers as the main driving force. This is a problem that has becomeduces the inefficiency of administrative allocations. Replacementfamiliar in other settings , such as utiliation of underground oilof the traditional administrative alocation system by the intro-fields by two or more companies. Essentially the problem is thatduction of water trading using the national water system shouldsuch arrangements grant pumping or utilization powers to pri-greatly improve the eficiency of water use in the country.vate corporations without assigning property rights in the re-source itself , which is in effect shared.5.5 Private Sector Participation6 Concluding RemarksThe general view is that market forces are the most suit-able tools for the efficient use of water in the urban and agricul-To date the Israeli government has been highly successfultural sectors. Accordingly , water prices that are determined byin addressing the water problems it has faced , while maintain-the Government , based on the existing non- tradable allocationing a steady rate of economic growth and accommodating thesystem , should be converted into a market negotiating system.demands of an increasing population. Key aspects have incudedThis change would eventually lead to a greater involvement ofits system of allocating water resources to designated sectors，the private sector in the production and supply of water to theand within that allocation rigorously enforcing compliance and e-various consumers. Further , it is anticipated that rational waterconomic incentives to achieve eficient resource use.use will be achieved by the creation of new water suppliers ,Its achievements in the agricultural sector have been partic-carved out of Mekorot. The role of Mekorot should be limitedularly outstanding. It is clear that economic incentives havto the operation of the national carier，while the regional waterplayed a key role in stimulating innovative technologies , mostsupply schemes should be privatized and defined as public ser-obviously in irrigation , but also in manufacturing and urban wa-vices under the supervision of the Water Commissioner.ter use. The extraction levy system , where charges are designedIn particular , the urban water sector is expected to under-to reflect the scarcity value of water , is of key importance ,as isgo a profound reform , stemming from the introduction of thethe increasing block system used for agricultural and domesticnew corporation law ，under which the municipalities are touses，with all uses( including individual abstractions ) being me-transfer the management of the municipal water supply to pri-tered and sewage costs incorporated into municipal water rates.vate sources. The aim is to ensure that activities in the munici-Nevertheless severe problems remain : existing sources ofpal water sector will be carried out through independent , profit-supply can no longer meet growing needs. Rapidly increasingmaking enterprises. .marginal costs of supply , exemplified by the costs of desalina-The Israeli government currently lists increasing competi-tion , require still further improvements in pricing policy. Subsi-tion as one of the goals of national water policy. The budgetdization of irrigation water -considerable in purely financial termsproposal for fiscal 2000 states as a goal " Increasing businessand even greater in economic terms - requires re - evaluation.competition in the areas of the water system，especially in theMoreover , even urban and other uses of water should increas-reuse of waste water，granting the ecomomic right to produceingly be priced at rates reflecting real ( incremental ) costs ofrwater, quality control and distribution of water , with the in-supply. This also implies the need to ensure that regional andtention of reducing the costs of water supply." Decision 136 ofgeographic variations in water supply costs are reflected in dif-the government( 1999 ) called for introducing elements of com-ferential water prices ; achievement of social equity should not bepetition in water production , especially in water drilling. Alhandled by means of water pricing.driling is supposed to be conducted henceforth through competi-Inefficiencies in the urban sector continue to prevail. Inad-tive tendering. Despite a broad law that already requires theequate operation and maintenance leading to leakage and wasteawarding of government contracts through competitive tender-n help address this problem ,ing , this had not previously been standard practice in the wateralthc中国煤化工，1 of urban water supply sys-sector. .temsMHC N M H Grion of compettono wit re-Privatizing the main sources of water in Israel is not a real-gard to bulk supplies. While public ownership of basic commonistic idea , for the simple reason that it is not feasible to establishwater resources is required , efforts should be made to introduceproperty rights in a competitive setting for the water in the Seaa system in which allocated rights can be traded.27 .