A Contemporary Cognitive Analysis of Metaphor

ISSN 1009 -5039htp://www.overen.comOverseas English灌呸医海Tel:+86- -551- 56908115690812A Contemporary Cognitive Analysis of MetaphorDUAN Guo-xang(Zhongkai Univerity of Agriculure and Tehnology, Guangzhou 510225, China)Abstract: Basing itself on the cognitive theory of metaphor proposed by Lakoff and Johnson, this paper elaborates the important views thatmake this theory of metaphor unique, namely, the definition of metaphor as a mapping across conceptual domains, the distinction drawnbetween conceptual metaphors (or metaphorical concepts) and linguistic metaphors (or metaphorical expressions), the cssication and fea-tures of conceptual metaphor and the experintial basis of conceptual metaphor as distinguished from both subjectism and objectivism.Key words:metaphor; cognitive analysis; linguitics; culture中團分类号:H315文献标识码:A文章编号:1009 -5039(2011)1- 0241-02saves both time and labour., etc.cording to contemporary theory of metaphor, metaphor is not just2 Classification of conceptual metaphora linguistic phenomenon, but also a too: indispensable to ourLakoff & Johnson cssified conceptual metaphor into threethinking, as "hunan thought processes are largely metaphorical"(Lakoff & Johnson, 1980: 6). The publication of Lakoff & John-main types: structural metaphor, orientational metaphor and onto-son's Metaphors We Live By (1980) marked the beginning oflogical metaphor (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980)Structural metaphors refer to the cases where one concept isstudy of metaphor from the cognitive perspective, which claimsstructured in termns of another, usually with the concrete, knownthat metaphor is conceptual and that many of our actions areor familiar concepts in the source domain to structure the ab-based on metaphorical conception. Another attempt to analyzemetaphor from the cognitive perspective is made by Fauconnierstract, unknown and unfamiliar concepts in the target domain,(1998) who put forward the mental space theory andsuch as ARGUMENT IS WAR, LIFE IS JOURNEY and TIME ISMONEY ete. For example: Your claims are indefensible. He at-the conceptual blending theory to understand metaphor in a cog-nitive way. This paper will base itself on the cognitive theory ofgument with him. It is obvious that what we do in an argument ismetaphor proposed by Lakoff and Johnson.largely stuctured in terns of war. We. can defend or attack, win1 Metaphor as a mapping across conceptual do-or lose an argument.mainsOrientational metaphors come from the interactions betweenLakoff & Johnson argue "the essence of metaphor is under-human being and the nature and are based on the fundamentalstanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of another"spatial orientations such as up- down, front- -back, center-periph-(Lakoff & Johnson, 1980: 5). Later, metaphor is further definedery and deep -sallow, etc. We project these concrete orienta-as a "mapping across conceptual domains" (Lakof, 1993: 208),tional concepts into the abstract concepts such as emotions,namely, a mapping from the source domain to the target domain.physical states, number, social status and so on, hence the orien-Take LOVE IS JOURNEY for example, the concept we try to un-tational metaphors and related linguistie metaphors. For example,derstand (IOVE) is called the target domain and the concept thatHAPPY IS UP; SAD IS DOWN. Orietational metaphors areis used for this purpose JOURNEY) is called the source domain.deeply grounded in human beings' physical and cultural experi-Firstly, such mappings are asymmetric in that they are unidirec-ence, since drooping posture is usually associated with situationstional, involving projections from a source domain to a target do-of inactivity, such as sadness, depression, sleep and death; whilemain only. Secondly, such mappings are partial in that only partupright posture is closely related to activity.of the structure of the source domain is projected to the targetOntological metaphors make it possible for us to conceive ofdomain. Thirdly, melaphorical mappings are not arbitrary, butabstract, instinet concepts such as ideas, emotions, psychologicalgrounded in our physical and cultural experiences. Fourthly, suchactivities, events, states, etc. as concrete, tangible entities andmappings all obey the Invariance Principle that the image 一substances through our experiences with physical objects, espe-schematic structure of the source domain is projected onto thecially our own bodies. This type of conceptual metaphor can betarget domain in a way that is consistent with the inherent targetfurther subcategorized into entity and substance metaphor, con-domain structure. Conceptual metaphors and linguistic metaphorstainer metaphor, personification, and metonymy (Lakoff & John-are diferent from each other in that the former refers to such ab-son, 1980: 25-40).stract notions underlying the metapborical expressions as TIMEEntity and substance metaphors provide an understanding ofIS MONEY and LOVE IS A JOURNEY, etc, and the ltter toour experience in terms of visible, tangible objects and sub-such specific linguistic phrases that reflect or make manifestenities or substances via this type ofthose abstact notions in one way or another a He apends muchmetaphors, experiences can thus be referred to, categorized,time on his homework., I's a waste of time, The new methodquantified, grouped and reasoned about. For example, My fear of中国煤化工YHCNMHG收稿日期:2010-10-18修回日期:2010-11-19作者简介:段国祥(1977- ),男,湖北仙桃人,讲师,硕士研究生,现就职于仲恺农业工程学院外国语学院，主要研究方向二语习得和网络教学。241Overseas English海盛外美 海2011年1月insect is driving my wife crazy. The ugly side of his personalitystructured on the basis of one's experiences gained from our bodycomes out under pressure.or interactions between ourselves and the physical environmentContainer metaphors, the most typical ontological metaphor,or other people within our culture. The experiences, direct or in-begin with our awareness of our own bodies as having a discretedirect, all constitute our conceptual system.boundary to separate ourselves from the outside world. The notion4 Features of conceptual metaphorsof container can be extended metaphorically to other physicalobjects with boundaries, to natural environment, to some sub-Systematicity. The systematicity of conceptual metaphor isstances and even to solid objects (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980: 29 -rellected in two aspects: Each conceptual metaphor heads and31). That is why we say go into/ out of a house, in the forest,govers a system of correspondences between the source domainjump into the water, fly in the air, through the solid rock. More-and the target domain, such as ARCUMENT IS WAR. Conceptu-al metaphors may also be systematically related to each other toover, we use container metaphors to understand more abstractform a hierarechical structure, such as TIME IS MONEY.enties such as thoughts, actions, and states. For example: Perrewas so dee in thought that he did not hear the question. He pa-Universality. Conceptual metaphors are universal in twotient has been in a coma for a week.senses: Conceptual metaphors are pervasive in every culture andPersonification, "perhaps the. most obvious ontologicallanguage; The conceptual metaphors in different languages bearstriking resemblances. As we know, human's physical experi-metaphors" (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980:33), treats a thing or an ideaences on which conceptual metaphors are based are largely simi-asifit were human or had human qualties and it "allow us tolar, that is why metaphorical concepts. in different cultures andcomprehend a wide variety of experiences with nonhuman entitiesin termns of human motivations, characteristics, and activities"languages show great similarities. For example, in both English(Ibid). Examples of this type are rather ample in languages: Thand Chinese, there exist large quantity of similar conceptualwind sang her mourmful song through the flling leaves. Themelaphors, such as TIME IS MONEY, ARGUMENT IS WAR,LIFE IS JOURNEY, etc.video camera observed the whole scene.Metonymy is traditinally viewed a figure of speech differentNationality. Conceptual metaphors are largely dependent onfrom metaphor. But the definition of metaphor as the way of un-human's common cognitive pattems, but they sometimes manifestcharacteristics typical of a specific culture or nation, hence thederstanding and experiencing one thing in terms of another or anationality of conceptual melaphors (Li, 2001). Since the mostcross- domain mapping qualifes metonymy to be included in thefundamental culural values of a culture are closely related to itscategory of metaphor in the contenporary cognitive theory of em-metaphorical concepts, the conceptual metaphors, though largelytaphor. This process of transferred reference has a primary "ref-ntial function" and an understanding function as well, whichuniversal, are cultural- specific as well. For example, the Engishpermits THE PART FOR THE WHOLE when we say The handsentence "That theory doesn't hold water." and its Chinese e-that rocks the cradle rules the world, CONTAINER FOR CON-quivalent "Nage lilun zhan bu zhu jiao." mean the same, but theycome from different conceptual metaphors: the former is the com-TENTS OF CONTAINER, as when we say The ketle's boiling,mon one THEORIES ARE CONTAINERS, while the later a lessand the like.frequent personification THEORIES ARE PEOPLE.3 The experiential basis of cogmitive metaphor the-Ref ferences:[1] Aristole.Rhetoric and peticspM]New York:The Modem Library,Departing from both subjectivism and objectivism, Lakoff1954.(1987) oulines an alemative called experientialism or experien-[2] Lakoff C,Johnson M.Metaphors We Live by [M,Chicego:Thetial realism. Two versions of "basic realism" 8 they are, experi-University of Chicago Pes,1980entialism and objectivism are diferent in that objectivism defines[3] Lakoff C.Women, Fire and Dangerous Things[M.Chicago:Uni-meaning independent of human beings' experiences, while expe-versity of Chicago Press,1987.rientialism characterizes meaning in termns of embodiment, name-[4] Lakoff C.The contemporary theory of metaphor[My/.Ortony A.ly, "in term of our collective biological capacities and our physi-Metaphor and Thought. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-cal and social experiences as beings functioning in our environ-versity Pes,1993.ment" (Lakoff, 1987:266-267). Our experiences come from our[5] Li Guonan.Figures and Vocabulary [M].Shanghai: Shanghaibody or from our interaction with our physical and social sur-Foreign Languages Education Press,2001.roundings. Our word, as it means to Us and 8 we understand it,[6] Lin Shuwu.A Survey of Metaphor Study in Foreign Countriesis not something objectively given, but rather somebhing con-[],Foreign Language Teaching and Resexrc1,9971)11-19.structed by our embodied cognition. According to Lakoff, no con-[7] Shen Li.Transfer of Poetic Chinese in L2 [J]Fudan Joumal,cept is objectively relcted on one's mind; all concepts are199(1);131-135.中国煤化工MYHCNMHG242莉1半研究本栏目青任编舞:谢嫒嫒