印尼的煤炭成本The Cost of Coal in Indonesia
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煤炭在印尼人的生活中扮演着非常重要的角色,影响着印尼许多经济和社会方面。印度尼西亚是世界五大煤炭生产国和第二大煤炭出口国(国际能源署,2017年)。印尼60%以上的电力来自煤炭发电厂,预计到2027年,煤炭发电量将几乎翻一番(MEMR,2018)。该国大多数燃煤电厂位于人口稠密的爪哇岛,其次是苏门答腊岛。2017年,雅加达100公里范围内有22个燃煤发电厂机组在运行,计划增加22个机组(绿色和平组织,2017年)。 煤被证明对人类健康有非常有害的作用。燃煤发电或热释放小颗粒(PM2.51和更小)和与心血管、呼吸系统疾病和癌症有关的不同有毒元素。煤炭造成的空气污染被认为是几种非传染性疾病(NCD)的直接原因,这些疾病在2015年导致印度尼西亚130万人死亡(世界卫生组织[WHO],2015年)。如果不认识和解决这些外部因素,可能会对印尼人的健康产生非常负面的影响。 其他大型煤炭消费国,如中国和印度正在采取措施减少对煤炭的依赖,限制空气污染及其对人口的有害影响。据估计,2013年中国(清华大学,2016年)和2015年印度(印度理工学院[IIT]、健康影响研究院[HEI]和健康计量与评估研究院[IHME],2018年)因煤驱动的空气污染导致的过早死亡人数分别超过241000人和169000人。印度尼西亚的一项研究估计,2011年有7500人因煤炭过早死亡,如果不采取措施,预计到2030年,这一数字将增加到25000人(Koplitz、Jacob、Sulprizio、Myllyvirta和Reid,2017年)。印度尼西亚空气污染引起的非传染性疾病是该国过早死亡的主要原因之一(卫生计量和评价研究所,新罕布什尔州)。 印尼政府已采取措施减少雾霾造成的空气污染,改善公共交通。但它也继续支持煤炭,并认为煤炭是印尼的主要电力来源。国际可持续发展研究所(IISD)的研究(Attwood等人,2017年)估计,2014年印度尼西亚对煤炭生产的补贴达到9.46亿美元(12.4万亿印尼盾),几乎占2013年印度尼西亚公共卫生支出的10%。这使得煤炭成为一种昂贵的发电资源,特别是考虑到可再生能源的价格正在大幅下降。 以下各节概述了与煤炭燃烧相关的主要非传染性疾病、主要受影响人口群体以及对印度尼西亚空气污染造成的损失的估计。
Coal plays a very important role in the life of Indonesians, affecting many economic and social aspects in the country. Indonesia is among the world’s five largest coal producers and the second largest coal exporter (International Energy Agency, 2017). More than 60 per cent of the electricity produced in Indonesia is sourced from coal power plants, and the amount of coal power is expected to almost double by 2027 (MEMR, 2018). The majority of coal power plants in the country are located on the highly populated island of Java, followed by Sumatra. In 2017, there were 22 coal power plant units operating within 100 kilometres of Jakarta, with 22 more units planned (Greenpeace, 2017). Coal is proven to have very noxious effects on human health. Burning coal to produce electricity or heat releases small particles (PM2.51 and smaller) and different toxic elements that are related to cardiovascular and respiratory diseases and cancer. Air pollution from coal is considered a direct cause of several noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) which in 2015 caused 1.3 million deaths in Indonesia (World Health Organization [WHO], 2015). Failing to recognize and address these externalities can have a very negative impact on the health of Indonesians. Other large coal consumers such as China and India are taking measures to reduce their reliance on coal, limiting air pollution and its noxious effects on their populations. Coal-driven air pollution was estimated to cause over 241,000 premature deaths in China in 2013 (Tsinghua University, 2016) and 169,000 in India in 2015 ( Indian Institute of Technology [IIT], the Health Effects Institute [HEI] and the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation [IHME], 2018). One study in Indonesia estimated 7,500 premature deaths due to coal in 2011 and expected this number to increase to 25,000 by 2030 if no measures are taken (Koplitz, Jacob, Sulprizio, Myllyvirta, & Reid, 2017). NCDs caused by air pollution in Indonesia are among the main causes of premature death in the country (Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation [IHME], n.d.). The Indonesian government has taken steps to reduce air pollution from haze and to improve public transit. But it also continues to support coal and considers it a main source of electricity for Indonesia. Research by the International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD) (Attwood, et al., 2017) estimates that subsidies to coal production in Indonesia reached USD 946 million (IDR 12.4 trillion) in 2014, almost 10 per cent of Indonesia’s public health expenditure in 2013. This makes coal an expensive source of electricity generation, especially considering that the price of renewable energy is going down significantly. The following sections outline the main NCDs associated with coal combustion, the primary affected population groups and an estimate of how much air pollution is costing Indonesians.-
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